How did the ancient "teachers" practice?

People in China are interested in playing word games. "Although not necessarily, maybe almost." Seven rounds and eight rounds will lead to your own ideas. Playing word games, the criminal experts in the Qing Dynasty were most interested. They are handling written lawsuits for others, but they can emphasize the importance. For example, the suspect "deserved it, but excusable." That is, guilty. There is also forgiveness, suggesting leniency. If you change the order of this sentence, "pity should be punished." That means heavier punishment.

Officials in Qing dynasty were assisted by "teachers", which was a supporting measure to open the door of donation in Qing dynasty. It is precisely because of the well-trained professional administrative team like teachers that the low cultural quality and administrative ability of state and county officials have not affected the normal operation of government agencies even if they come from donations. Selling officials and titles has increased the country's fiscal revenue, and it has also provided another way for intellectuals who cannot be selected for scientific research to become officials and politicians, which has played a calming role.

Let's start with a story about a white county magistrate: In the Qing Dynasty, there was an article called "Ji Kai", which said that a county magistrate sat in court to hear a case after taking office. When he opened the list, he saw the word "Ji Kai" in the first column. This is an official document format, not a person's name. The county magistrate thought it was a person's name, so he clicked it with a brush. It is difficult for the official to say it directly, but he replied cunningly: "The plan hasn't arrived yet." When the second case was tried, I saw whether "Ji Kai" was a leader or was marked with a brush, but the official still told me: "Ji Kai hasn't arrived yet". The county magistrate was furious and said, "Both cases are based on Ji Kai, but they dare to resist the news. The officers are obviously buying tickets." Then ordered the staff to blame the officer. The officer shouted, "Ji Kai is not human." The county magistrate said, "Because it is inhuman, I want to take it." It is a hilarious joke to assume the responsibility of a police officer, limit the case to three days, and be sure to catch the fugitive. Another county magistrate is illiterate. Once he heard a case in court, and there were three names on the indictment handed over to him by the master: the plaintiff came, the defendant lost his life, and the witness Xin Hu. The county magistrate saw the name of "Yugonglai" and shouted, "Come on up." Hearing this, the three men rushed to the front of the class to ask for their advice. The county magistrate said angrily, "I'm the plaintiff. Why come up together?" Then he looked at the name of "Qi Bian Diao" and shouted, "Let's go down together." Hearing this, the three men hurried back to the hall, and the magistrate was furious. "My name is the defendant. How did you go down together?" Seeing this, Bao inquired and said quickly, "There is another way to pronounce the plaintiff's name, that is, when Yu Gong comes, it will not be called' All Up', and there is another way to pronounce the defendant's name, that is, it will be thrown on the same side, not called' All Down'." The county magistrate asked, "What's another way to pronounce the witness's name?" Answer: "New kettle." The county magistrate said, "I guess he has another way of saying it, otherwise I will call him' Dad'."

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In the government organs of the Qing Dynasty, the official was in charge of administration and the official was in charge of affairs. Beloved is neither an official nor an official, but a private consultant hired by an official with "Yang Lian Yin". Also known as "screen friends", they are not civil servants established by the state. For example, Zeng Guofan has more than 400 shogunate talents, including Li Hongzhang's brothers, Zuo, and so on. In the Qing dynasty, although the master did not hold public office, he was the actual operator of government affairs at all levels. During the Han and Tang Dynasties, the county commandant was responsible for handling judicial affairs, the courtiers in the Ming Dynasty were responsible, and the famous criminal teachers in the Qing Dynasty were responsible. Dealing with fiscal and taxation matters, the housekeeper served in the Ming Dynasty, and the master Qian Gu served in the Qing Dynasty. Helping officials to draft and process official documents, and helping officials to classify and file them, was undertaken by the person in charge of the county government's main book in the Ming Dynasty, and by registered teachers and book-opening teachers in the Qing Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, the clerk of the Ritual Department was responsible for marking the papers for officials, and in the Qing Dynasty, the marking master was in charge. There is also a treasurer who helps officials take charge of money entering and leaving the government. The laws of the Qing Dynasty are complex and strict, and it is difficult for officials without professional training to master them. The court also stipulated in detail the details of judicial documents and administrative affairs, and fines, demotion and dismissal will be imposed if there is a slight negligence. However, there are many agreements in actual judicial operation, and it is not easy to master and apply them. Death penalty cases should be examined by counties, prefectures, prefectures and magistrates at different levels, and then reported to the Central Ministry of Punishment for examination, and then sent to officials of central ministries and hospitals for examination. Finally, the criminal department called all ministers to participate in the "autumn trial ceremony". For the officials elected by the stereotyped imperial examination and liberal arts examination, the new officials will be independent when they take office. There is no internship period, so we must ask crime experts to plan and catch knives for them. One of the most important tasks of the county magistrate in the Qing Dynasty was to preside over the judicial trial and become a county magistrate. This requires criminal experts as legal experts to assist. In the Qing dynasty, not everyone could write a complaint. According to the law of the Qing Dynasty, the submission must be written by a "representative book" designated by the government and stamped with a wooden stamp. The official should make a clear written "criticism" on the accused case, and the criticism should be drafted by the criminal chief. For the accepted submissions, the reasons for acceptance shall be stated. For statements that are not admissible, the reasons for prosecution of the public prosecutor should be rejected one by one according to laws, reasons or regulations, so that it is no longer easy to prosecute or transfer them to higher authorities. These activities are a test of the ability of crime experts. The criminal master is only a private consultant hired by state and county officials, and is not responsible for the law and the people, nor for government agencies. Only responsible for the officers and my own conscience, which is what we now call professional ethics. Nor is it "taking the law as the criterion", because the law is not perfect, so we should judge and judge cases by Confucian classics and morality rather than law. Traditionally, China did not replace morality with law as in foreign countries, and ancient China was a human society.

Punishment touts also have hidden rules:

1. Save people but don't save them.

The dead in the case cannot be resurrected. If you kill one more person, you kill two people. This is not merit. Saving lives, not saving lives, is to try not to let prisoners die.

2. Save the officials but not the people.

As far as possible, it is not allowed to reverse the verdict of unjust, false and wrong cases, because the officials who caused the unjust, false and wrong cases will be severely punished, so they should save the officials rather than the people.

3. Save the big but not the small.

When dealing with official cases, if the blame is attributed to big officials, the bigger the official, the heavier the punishment, and the more people involved. Putting the blame on small officials, small officials have less responsibilities, fewer people involved, light punishment and easy to close the case, so saving the big does not save the small.

4. Save the old but not the new.

If financial problems are found during the handover of old and new officials, if the responsibility is passed on to the old officials, the old officials will not be able to leave their posts and pay off their debts. Soon after the new official takes office, if the responsibility is pushed to the new official, "three years to clear the magistrate, 100 thousand snowflakes and silver." New officials always have a way to make up for the deficit by plundering money, so they should keep the old and not the new.

Judges in Qing dynasty handled cases flexibly, and thought that the use of law was a means to achieve stability and harmony to a certain extent. This is the expression of the golden mean and the unity of man and nature in China's traditional philosophy, and it is considered as the expression of wisdom. Therefore, the purpose of learning the law in Qing dynasty is to avoid the law and make flexible use of it, so as to avoid the heavy and make a living. A case of privately minting copper coins in Jiangnan in the Qing Dynasty was recorded in the history books. All the arrested criminals insisted that a fugitive was the principal offender.

According to the Qing Law, the principal in the case of privately minting copper coins was shelved, but the principal has not been arrested, so the accomplice can reduce his sentence and join the army in Xinjiang.

Two years later, the fugitive principal was arrested and brought to justice, but he refused to admit that he was the principal, and it was impossible for him to come back from Xinjiang with his accomplices to confront him. If the principal offender is brought to Xinjiang for confrontation, the official who originally tried the case will also participate in the trial. The touts who were so anxious that they couldn't figure out a way invited the touts in Linxian County to have a meeting to discuss. After several days of closed-door thinking, there was a fierce collision. Hehe, besides seeing the stars, there are really sparks. A master surnamed Han said: Persuade the principal offender to admit that he is the mastermind, and at the same time change "capture" to "surrender as soon as you hear it". According to the law of famous cases, surrender can reduce the sentence by one degree, avoid the death penalty, change the sentence and send it, and the case can be ended, and everyone can get his place. Everyone looked at this gift and was ecstatic. Hearing this, the criminal can avoid death, nod in agreement and cooperate extremely. The successful conclusion of this case is also to try not to sentence such cases to death in the future. It saved a lot of trouble by persuading criminals to confess.

To be a good master of criminal names, we should not only study law, but also study to judge cases by classics. In ancient times, quoting classics to judge cases was the highest realm of judicial trial.

Tell me an example of quoting a classic judgment:

Qianlong thirty-three years (1768). Feng in Wucheng County, Zhejiang Province has no children and no nephew among his brothers, so Feng adopted his aunt's grandson as his stepson. After Feng's death, another fellow villager surnamed Feng competed for property, saying that Feng's stepson was a different surname and should not be an heir, but should be inherited by his own son. According to the laws of the Qing dynasty, a different surname may not be an heir, but shall be inherited by the younger relatives of the same family. However, the surname Feng involved is different from that of Feng, and whether different families can inherit it is not mentioned in law.

The case became a mystery. The two sides of the case repeated for a long time. The former magistrate ruled that the successor was defeated and the successor was controlled by the state, while Huzhou government ruled that the successor won the case. Feng's stepson went further to Daotai, and Daotai sent the case back to Wucheng County for retrial. Jiang, the new magistrate, and Master Wang began to discuss how to settle the case. Master Wang, a criminal in wang xing, found it difficult to make a judgment on this case, especially after the judgment, so that both parties would no longer be accused, and a good reason must be found to prevent the case from being overturned. So he found the basis from the book "North Xi Ziyi" by Chen Chun, a Neo-Confucianism scholar in the Song Dynasty. According to the explanation of relatives in this famous Confucian book: "If you are close to the same clan, the same surname is not the same clan, that is, it is no different from a different surname." According to the book, although the heirs fighting for power and profit share the same surname, they are different clans. In fact, they are no different from Feng's stepson. They are all different surnames, in no order. The grandson of the stepson's aunt, although with different surnames, was personally selected by Feng, and the Feng family also admitted that he could inherit all the property as a stepson, and others could not compete for it. As soon as this batch came out, it really made the competitors speechless and dared not ask for a conviction again. A mystery was settled like this. Shaoxing touted Wang Huizu's reputation and was known as the "famous curtain in the south of the Yangtze River". Here is just a brief introduction to the criminal. States and counties handle normal teachers in the fields of justice, taxation, administration and imperial examinations. Because of the small number of officials in the Qing Dynasty, there were only three or four officials in each county in the middle of the Qing Dynasty. As a result, a huge team of informal officials recruited privately has been formed. The state and county touts have been "George" for a long time, and there are few opportunities for promotion. Anyone who deals with military affairs, river engineering and water transport at or above the provincial level has the opportunity to be an official. Zuo is a typical example of this way of being an official. After winning the bid, he failed to enter the Jinshi three times and devoted himself to studying the art of war. First, I worked with Governor Zhang of Hunan Province to raise money for the army and made great achievements. Later, he was recommended and became an important minister in the late Qing Dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, there were fewer and fewer state and county officials and more and more officials in charge of the upper level, which made officials have to hire a certain number of touts according to their own specific conditions. The cost for ordinary officials to hire touts was about 20%. In a word, the teachers with Shaoxing as the main body, as a professional team employed by the Qing society, played an important role in the administrative operation and the continuation of political power in the Qing Dynasty and became a major feature of politics in the Qing Dynasty. It was not until the Revolution of 1911 that this "two masters" that lasted for more than 200 years ended.

Edited on 20 15-06- 15.

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Well, what's more, the current situation is called Secretary of State, think tank, think tank, whatever you like ~ I recommend you to watch the American drama House of Cards. When the word "master" came into being is still unknown. From the origin point of view, this master came from an official in Zhou Wang, the "Curtain Man". "Zhou Li? Tiangong No.1 records the Notes on the Rites of Zhou: "When the king leaves the palace, the curtain man will send him to the end." ...

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Well, there are also, the status quo is called Secretary of State, think tank, think tank, whatever you want ~

I recommend you to watch the American drama House of Cards.

When the word "master" came into being is still unknown.

From the origin point of view, this master came from an official in Zhou Wang, the "Curtain Man". "Zhou Li? "Tian Guan Nakazawa Tomohide Shou" records

"Zhou Li Notes" said: "When the king leaves the palace, the curtain man sends him to stop, and then opens it by hand."

From this point of view, the duty of the "curtain man" is to take charge of curtains and other things, set up curtains and put on record in Zhou Wang's pilgrimage, meetings, military service, battlefield service, sacrifice and other activities.

According to Tsui Hark, a contemporary of Ping Buqing, in "Clearing Banknotes", "A servant is an official and is called a Lord; Fish friends are called teachers. Both the criminal name (Lord) and Qian Gu (Lord) can be called like this. " It can be considered that the name of "master" is self-evident among the people in the Qing Dynasty, and it is very popular.

The Ming Dynasty was the embryonic and brewing stage of the master, but the role of screen friends in government affairs was not mentioned in the government documents of the Ming Dynasty, and there was no image of the master in the novels and operas of the late Ming Dynasty.

As an independent industry, touts did not appear in the Ming Dynasty, but they have begun to take shape.

A striking phenomenon in Ming Dynasty is the rise of petty officials gang in Shaoxing, which is also the origin of Shaoxing gentry in Qing Dynasty.

In the Ming dynasty, Shaoxing people, who were the last in the imperial examination, became popular among officials.

Wang Shixing, an Amin, said in The Book of Changes in Guang Zhi that all the scribes in the imperial court from Jiuqing to Cao Xian Opera Bureau were basically Yue people.

It is also said in the Ming Dynasty novel "Marriage Story of Awakening the World" that Shaoxing people often use the method of "flying over the sea" to accumulate the qualifications for selecting officials, so that more than half of the bureaucrats in the world (referring to the assistant officials in counties and counties, usually the highest-level bookkeepers) are from Shaoxing.

The Qing dynasty was the heyday of touts and the main era of touts' activities.

In the Qing Dynasty, officials in charge of local affairs, from the governor to the magistrate, generally hired a number of touts to help handle affairs.

In terms of counties, there were more than 1500 counties in Qing Dynasty, and most of them had teachers.

There are more than a dozen touts in each county, ranging from two to three, and there are not less than 10 thousand touts in the whole country.