The simple process of the first industrial revolution

/kloc-The technological revolution initiated from Britain in the 0/8th century was a great revolution in the history of technological development, which initiated the era when machines replaced hand tools. This is not only a technological change, but also a profound social change. This revolution began with the birth of working machines, marked by the widespread use of steam engines as power machines. This technological revolution and related changes in social relations are called the first industrial revolution or industrial revolution. In terms of production technology, the industrial revolution replaced manual workshops with factory system and manual labor with machines; In social relations, the industrial revolution made the yeoman peasant class attached to the backward mode of production disappear, and the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat formed and developed.

Britain is the birthplace of the industrial revolution. The British Industrial Revolution began in the 1960s of 18 and was basically completed in the 40s of 19. It is no accident that the industrial revolution began in Britain, which has profound political, socio-economic and scientific and technological preconditions.

/kloc-the British bourgeois revolution in the middle of the 0/7th century overthrew the feudal autocracy in Britain and established a constitutional monarchy based on the alliance of the bourgeoisie and the land aristocracy. The bourgeoisie used state power to accelerate the implementation of policies and measures to develop capitalism, which promoted the rapid formation of various preconditions for the industrial revolution.

(2) The bourgeoisie accumulated huge wealth through large-scale foreign plunder and the national debt system and consumption tax policy implemented at home, which provided the necessary monetary funds for the industrial revolution; The large-scale enclosure movement provided a large number of "free" labor and a broad domestic market for the industrial revolution.

(3) The vigorous development of workshop handicraft industry has trained a large number of skilled workers with rich practical experience and created conditions for the invention and application of machines; The development and achievements of natural science, especially Newton's mechanics and mathematics, laid a scientific theoretical foundation for the emergence of machines.

(4) The booming workshop handicraft industry has accumulated rich knowledge of production technology and increased output, but it still cannot meet the expanding market demand. Therefore, a revolution in the mode of production is coming.

The industrial revolution first appeared in the emerging cotton textile industry of workshop handicraft industry. 1733, mechanic Kay invented the flying shuttle, which greatly improved the weaving speed, and cotton yarn was suddenly in short supply. 1765, the weaver Hargreaves invented the Jenny spinning machine, which greatly increased the output of cotton yarn. The appearance of "Jenny spinning machine" first triggered a chain reaction of cotton textile industry to invent machines and carry out technological innovation, which opened the prelude to the industrial revolution. Since then, the spinning machine, water jet loom and other machines have appeared in the cotton textile industry. Soon, in many industrial sectors, such as coal mining and metallurgy, there was also machine production.

With the increase of machine output, the original power such as animal power, water power and wind power can no longer meet the needs. In Birmingham, England, 1785, the improved steam engine made by Watt was put into use, which provided more convenient power and quickly popularized, greatly promoting the popularization and development of the machine. Thus, human society entered the "age of steam".

With machine production gradually replacing manual operation in industrial production, a new production organization form-bourgeois factory was born.

1840 or so, the large-scale machine production in Britain has basically replaced the workshop handicraft production, and the industrial revolution has basically been completed. Britain became the first industrial country in the world.

Although other European countries also have excellent and capable workers and innovative talents, they lack the capital, labor and market needed to develop the machinery industry, and also lack the political and cultural conditions to ensure the development of capitalist economy.

1789, the French revolution broke out, abolishing the privileges of the feudal ruling class and clearing the way for capitalist industrialization. After Napoleon came to power, he attached great importance to the development of science and technology, which created conditions for the industrial revolution in France (18+early 2009-19). Since then, Germany, the United States, Russia, Japan and other countries have also joined the ranks of the industrial revolution, and by the end of 19, these countries have all completed the industrial revolution.

The symbol is that Watt improved the steam engine and greatly increased the production speed of silk products.

Because Britain took the lead in completing the industrial revolution, it became the most prosperous country at that time.

1. The first industrial revolution greatly improved productivity, and the commodities on the market became more and more abundant, which consolidated the dominant position of the bourgeoisie; Britain took the lead in completing the industrial revolution and became the first industrial country in the world. Machine production has replaced manual labor, and science and technology have played an increasingly important role. Factories replaced handicraft workshops, completely changed the traditional mode of production, promoted the revolution and reform in the United States, Russia, Germany and Italy, started the affordable industrialization and modernization process in Europe and America, and initially formed the capitalist world system; 3. In the industrial society, it is increasingly divided into two opposing classes-the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat. 19 in the thirties and forties, the workers' movement rose. 4. Began the process of urbanization; Advanced production methods and technologies have spread all over the country, impacting old systems and concepts and changing people's concept of life; 5. It has accelerated the final formation of the whole world, and the East is subordinate to the West. Colonial aggression led to the upsurge of national liberation movement. Some important inventions before and after the industrial revolution, inventors invented the first industrial revolution.

17 12 Englishman Thomas Newcomen obtained a slightly improved steam engine patent 1733 Kay Johansson 1765 james hargreaves Jenny Spinning Machine 1769 Achray Hydraulic Spinning Machine 1769 Watt Improved Steam Engine 65438+. Bram Toilet 1779 Crompton Hand Hammer Spinning Machine 1785 Cartwright Power Loom1796 Seinfeld Lithography1797 Henry Mozley Spiral Cutting Machine 1802 james watt Improved Cowgate Steam Engine. Modern Steam Engine Molding 1807 Fulton Steamship1812 Trevyshakkorny Boiler 18 14 Stephenson Steam Locomotive 18 15 Han Dawei Miner/KLOC-0.

The role of industrial revolution in transforming society often exceeds that of political revolution, but it does not produce strong shock waves like formal political revolution, causing great turmoil in the situation. The unexpected development of productive forces and the great transformation of the factory system replacing handicraft workshops have shown a new look of the capitalist social mechanism and promoted the rapid evolution of the whole society. Over the past decades, the economic system with agriculture and rural areas as the main body has become an economic system with industry and cities as the main body, which has greatly changed people's lives and the economic geography of the country. The rise of new cities, the improvement of old cities, the general trend of population flowing from rural areas to cities, the trend of the country moving towards an urbanized society, the phenomenon that industrial output value far exceeds agricultural output value, and so on. Ordinary people and politicians are greatly surprised, sad and happy in their situation, but they can only adapt and make up their minds. This comprehensive and profound social change is, in the final analysis, the manifestation of the transformation of human society from agricultural civilization to industrial civilization. The latter embodies the spirit of creation and enterprising and the sense of competition, which is more challenging than the former. With irreversible momentum, it has changed people's traditional customs, value orientation and even job selection standards. In the process of social transformation, accompanied by serious exploitation and oppression, the situation of "several happy families are worried" is very obvious. As a result, the social structure and class structure have changed and combined into some new social interest groups. Among them, the most important thing is of course the formation of the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat. First industrial revolution

Compared with the bourgeoisie composed of businessmen in the workshop handicraft period, the industrial bourgeoisie has stronger enterprising spirit and consciousness of seeking development in free competition. Its achievements based on machinery industry are far from comparable to those of the old bourgeoisie. The ability of industry to transform agriculture, the ability to absorb free labor, the influence on the whole society, and the competition in the international market all make capitalism play a leading role in the trend of world history and quickly change the contrast between capitalist and pre-capitalist forces. /kloc-the bourgeois revolution and reform in the 0/9th century swept the world, and the initial formation of the capitalist world system in the middle of this century is the embodiment of this historical change. Feudalism and the social system before feudalism can only give way to capitalism. The proletariat, that is, the industrial workers, is another brand-new social interest group. It is different from the workers in manual workshops in the past. It has no small plots of land, no traditional production tools and no patriarchal clan system. This is purely a hired worker. The working conditions of using the machine and the centralized working environment connected with the machine make it centralized, unified and disciplined. Before long, they gradually realized that their group had the same fate and the same wishes and requirements. This is usually called class consciousness, knowing that you belong to the same group. Later, under the guidance of scientific theory, the concept of class consciousness was realized. Of course, these are only advanced workers. As a social group, workers struggle for their own interests and social status, thus forming a historical trend and adding new content to world history. It is this trend that promotes the development of socialism from utopia to science in the ideological field. With the gradual combination of socialism and the workers' movement, this trend has become stronger and stronger, and it has become one of the historical trends in the19th century. The formation and development of two social classes and the crowding out of rival industries by machinery industry have made the media of the past.

The result of the first industrial revolution (Figure 5) has divided and reorganized classes. The so-called middle class, also known as petty bourgeoisie, includes small business owners, shopkeepers, craftsmen and vendors. A few of them, squeezed by the machine industry, went bankrupt, and a large number of them were forced to be employed in factories and become part of the working class. Most people still exist, but many people feel precarious and face the threat of bankruptcy. Although more people have not yet faced the crisis, they are also worried about the prospects. Therefore, it has become another social interest group, eager to gain a place in the great social changes and strive to maintain and improve its social status. /kloc-there are many schools of petty-bourgeois socialism in the 0/9 century, and its root lies in this. Among them, the tendency of anarchism generally reflects the mood of the bankrupt; The theory of vigorously advocating the retention of small private ownership is often reflected by the petty bourgeoisie with anxiety. The petty bourgeoisie is keen to participate in the democratic movement because they are eager to improve their social status. The influence of editing this passage on China's first industrial revolution

In order to meet the needs of industrial production, major capitalist countries, led by Britain, seized the commodity market, seized the origin of raw materials, dumped industrial products and brought Asia, Africa and Latin America into the capitalist system. China has a vast territory and abundant resources, but the Qing government was politically corrupt, economically backward and lax in armaments. Capitalist countries pointed the finger of aggression at China, which brought great influence to China:

China began to become a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.

The two Opium Wars gradually reduced China to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, which further deepened. The war has brought a great disaster to China, resulting in long-term poverty and backwardness in China.

The people of China fought bravely.

During the two Opium Wars, the people of China kept fighting, and the peasant class set off the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom movement.

China's new ideas sprouted.

Wei Yuan, Lin Zexu and other enlightened intellectuals began to pay attention to the world, explore new knowledge, seek ways to strengthen the country against aggression, and sprouted a new ideological trend of learning from the West.

The modernization of China has begun.

The Westernization Movement initiated by the landlord class promoted the emergence and development of capitalism in China objectively. At the same time, China's modern industry, science and technology and education started, and the Westernization Movement was the beginning of China's modernization.

To develop the economy, we must improve people's living standards and promote social prosperity. Developing productive forces can no longer be at the expense of the environment. Economic development should keep pace with environmental protection and take the road of "sustainable development".

British industrial revolution

The industrial revolution first began in Britain. When discussing the conditions of British industrial revolution, people always mention its agricultural revolution, overseas trade, colonial plunder, national debt system, tax policy and so on, which is of course correct. But one thing must be added, that is, the expansion of the market. It is precisely because of the expansion of commodity demand in the market that it directly becomes the leading reason for increasing production, which leads to the strong pursuit of improving labor productivity and the invention of machines. About the process of British industrial revolution, including the inventions of Kay, Hargreaves, Achray, Crampe, Cartwright and Watt. I will not describe it here. It should be noted that after Britain, the United States, France, Germany and many other countries also started the industrial revolution, which reflected the same law of capitalist development.

American industrial revolution

The conditions of American industrial revolution have certain particularity, which can also be said to be unique. Of course, this should be the first to promote its "westward movement." After independence, the United States continued to expand its territory to the west by annexation and cheap purchase. By the middle of19th century, it has become a vast country stretching from the Pacific Ocean in the east, the Atlantic Ocean in the west, Canada in the north and Mexico in the south. In just over half a century, this field has expanded by 7. 5 times. The western territory is rich in mineral resources, water conservancy and forest resources, with fertile land, suitable climate, long coastline and excellent ports. This provides good conditions for its industrialization and agricultural development. American agriculture has developed rapidly and become one of the largest grain exporters in the world. In a short time, the specialized layout of the American economy has been formed. The northeast is a traditional industrial area, and the west is a vast agricultural area. According to the different natural environment, there have been "wheat kingdom", "cattle kingdom", "cotton kingdom" and vineyards. This regional economic specialization naturally formed under the objective law of economic development is a major feature of American economic development and also provides very favorable conditions for the development of the industrial revolution. The industrialized north, the important cotton and sugarcane producing areas in the south and the grain-producing west all need to complement each other and strengthen commodity exchange. The trade volume between regions has doubled and even increased by 10 times. The domestic market conditions of American industrial revolution are unmatched by other countries. In addition, with the victory of the north in the civil war, the process of rebuilding the south after the war has also made the south an attractive investment place. There is a big problem in the economic development of the United States, which is a serious shortage of labor. /kloc-At the beginning of the 9th century, the population of the United States was only about 7 million. By the middle of19th century, the land area was huge and the population was even rarer. The young United States absorbed a large number of immigrants with the momentum of opening up, which alleviated this problem to a considerable extent. In the second half of the19th century alone, as many as 27 million people immigrated to the United States. The majority of American residents are immigrants. The American industrial revolution was carried out under such a background and environment. In the days after independence, although the United States achieved the status of a sovereign country politically, it still could not get rid of its dependence on Britain economically. Therefore, the industrial revolution is also the way out for its economic independence. In the process of promoting the industrial revolution, the policies of the federal government played a very positive role. It establishes a national bank, issues paper money, absorbs hot money and lends money to industries; Implement tariff protection; Encourage scientific and technological progress, implement patent law, and so on. Government support is another favorable condition for the American industrial revolution. Like Britain, the industrial revolution in the United States began with the cotton textile industry. /kloc-at the end of 0/8, Americans copied Jenny's spinning machine. Soon, the cotton gin was invented, which improved the cleaning efficiency of raw cotton by nearly 100 times. /kloc-At the beginning of the 0/9th century, weaving technology was introduced from England. New England in the northeast has rapidly developed into the center of cotton textile industry. Subsequently, garment, leather, glass, wool and other industries also realized the use of machinery production. After the civil war, the industrial revolution made rapid progress, especially the heavy industry. Mining, metallurgy, oil exploitation, oil refining and other industries are all developing at the speed of 10 times or even dozens of times, showing a prosperous scene. Among them, there are two huge domestic stimulus factors. First, the urgent demand for agricultural machinery in the western development. The second is the upsurge of railway construction for the communication between East and West. These two factors are not only the powerful driving force of the industrial revolution, but also the achievements and important components of the industrial revolution. Building railways and manufacturing locomotives, buses and trucks naturally provide a huge market for the steel industry, especially the steel rolling industry. At the same time, railway construction is also a comprehensive undertaking, including station construction, sleeper supply, car equipment, management and service personnel recruitment and training. It promoted the industrial revolution in all directions. Railway traffic also provides convenient conditions for commercial circulation and cargo transportation, and integrates various distinctive economic regions into a whole. So it is not surprising that the United States has developed into the country with the strongest economic strength in the world in a short time. From the French Industrial Revolution to the middle of the19th century, France was the second largest economic power after Britain. Its industrial revolution began long ago. Before the Great Revolution, steam engines and Jenny spinning machines were introduced from England. Lesquereux Zuoye Metallurgical Company, which occupies a leading position in Europe, and Angzan Mining Company, one of the largest coal mining enterprises in Europe, are equipped with advanced equipment such as steam engines, steam hammers and horse-drawn railways. Individual textile mills use Jenny spinning machines. However, with the outbreak of the 1789 Great Revolution, a war against foreign armed intervention began in 1792, followed by the Napoleonic War, and the internal situation was turbulent for a long time, which made the just-started industrial revolution have to stop. Although there are some movements in some gaps, they are extremely slow and difficult to form a climate. After the collapse of Napoleon's empire, the industrial revolution rose. In particular, the British government lifted the ban on machinery export in 1825, which gave French industry the opportunity to introduce more advanced machinery and equipment and took the step of industrial revolution revival. But at that time, it was the restoration dynasty, and the investment environment was quite unfavorable. 1824 King Charles X, who ascended the throne, even went the other way, trying to restore the feudal system in an all-round way, and the industrial revolution intensified. 1830 the July revolution overthrew the restoration dynasty and established the bourgeois Orleans dynasty (July dynasty), and the situation improved obviously. The July Dynasty claimed to be the successor of the Great Revolution, which greatly improved the environment of the industrial revolution and began to take off. By the end of 1940s, the number of steam engines had increased from 625 to 52 12, and the average horsepower had dropped from 16 to 12.5. The decrease of steam engine horsepower shows that steam engines are becoming smaller and more widely used. In the past, steam engines were mainly used to pump water from mines during mining, which required high horsepower. At this time, it can be installed as a power device in the textile industry. France has 165438+6000 spinning machines. As an important symbol of industrial development, the speed of railway construction is quite slow. Generally speaking, French industry is still dominated by small-scale production, and there are not many large industries that use machines. The industrial revolution still has a long way to go. There are many reasons for this. There are two most important points: First, the political situation has been turbulent for a long time since the Great Revolution. Although it was a little stable after the Napoleonic Wars, the Restoration Dynasty was rebuilt under the protection of the bayonet of the anti-French Coalition forces, and the prospects were unpredictable. In this case, the bourgeoisie is not willing to venture into industry, but would rather invest money in credit business or even lend it abroad to earn interest. Second, since16th century, the financial bourgeoisie has the strongest economic strength. This class made a fortune by covering debts and issuing government bonds, which has formed a tradition for centuries. In their view, taking advantage of the advantages and making a fortune can make quick profits and reduce risks, and can also use the funds in their hands to influence and manipulate the securities market. Therefore, they are more keen on loans and stock market transactions than investing heavily in industry. The July Dynasty was a political power controlled by the financial bourgeoisie, which was naturally dominated by the will of the financial aristocracy and hindered the development of the industrial revolution. This contradiction was not obvious at the beginning, but it became increasingly acute after the industrial bourgeoisie developed to a certain extent. This shows that the French industrial revolution was hindered by the rulers' policies soon after it really took off. Although the French industrial revolution started very early, it was difficult to form an investment psychology after going back and forth, stopping and stopping, and being blocked many times. More than half a century has passed, and the level is still not high. This is its outstanding feature. The biggest turning point of the industrial revolution was after the establishment of the Second French Empire. The second empire ruled by Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte stabilized the situation by powerful means, and provided a good environment for the industrial revolution by various policies that conformed to economic development. The period of the Second Empire was called "the golden age of agriculture". By the late 1960s, heavy industry and machine building had developed rapidly, marking the completion of the first industrial revolution in France.

German industrial revolution

At the beginning of the industrial revolution, Germany was still a divided country with dozens of states and free cities. At the same time, the development of different regions is extremely uneven, and not all countries have started the industrial revolution at the same time. With Prussia as the leader, it is a major feature of Germany's industrial revolution to expand its influence throughout Germany and thus promote economic development. The industrial revolution in Germany began in the 1930s. The bourgeoisie in Prussia gradually introduced British machines, and textile mills using machines began to be established. At this time, the Prussian government came forward to unite 18 neighboring countries and established a customs union in 1834. 18 allies cancel import tariffs on goods and unify the tax system. This all-German customs union took the lead in breaking through the political division, promoting the unified market of all Germany in the economic field and injecting new blood into the rapid development of the industrial revolution. The 1950s, the first industrial revolution, was the period when Prussia's economic reform came to an end. The degree of agricultural mechanization has been greatly improved, and the output value has increased rapidly, which has played a very good role in promoting the industrial revolution in providing raw materials, markets and labor. It was under such conditions that the German industrial revolution reached its climax. In 1950s and 1960s, a large number of joint-stock companies appeared, the length of railway lines increased rapidly, the railway freight volume increased by 27 times, the pig iron output increased by 5.6 times and the steel output increased by nearly 28 times. 187 1 completed the unification of Germany, and the unification of monetary system, tax system, measurement unit, commercial laws and regulations, traffic management, etc. , making the industrial revolution stronger. The compensation of 5 billion francs seized from France after the Franco-Prussian War enriched industrial capital. The occupied Alsace and Lorraine regions are rich in nonmetallic minerals such as potash and iron ore, which provide a large number of raw materials for chemical and metallurgical industries. Germany's industrial revolution started relatively late, but it took off at the intersection of the first industrial revolution and the second industrial revolution, which is conducive to its development on the basis of more advanced science and technology. At the same time, the German government attaches great importance to education and scientific research, which makes the industrial revolution have a more solid foundation than Britain and France, thus making Germany develop into the second largest industrial power in the world in a short time.

The role of industrial revolution in transforming society often exceeds that of political revolution, but it does not produce strong shock waves like formal political revolution, causing great turmoil in the situation. The unexpected development of productive forces and the great transformation of the factory system replacing handicraft workshops have shown a new look of the capitalist social mechanism and promoted the rapid evolution of the whole society. Over the past decades, the economic system with agriculture and rural areas as the main body has become an economic system with industry and cities as the main body, which has greatly changed people's lives and the economic geography of the country. The rise of new cities, the improvement of old cities, the general trend of population flowing from rural areas to cities, the trend of the country moving towards an urbanized society, the phenomenon that industrial output value far exceeds agricultural output value, and so on. Ordinary people and politicians are greatly surprised, sad and happy in their situation, but they can only adapt and make up their minds.

This comprehensive and profound social change is, in the final analysis, the manifestation of the transformation of human society from agricultural civilization to industrial civilization. The latter embodies the spirit of creation and enterprising and the sense of competition, which is more challenging than the former. With irreversible momentum, it has changed people's traditional customs, value orientation and even job selection standards. In the process of social transformation, accompanied by serious exploitation and oppression, the situation of "several happy families are worried" is very obvious. As a result, the social structure and class structure have changed and combined into some new social interest groups. Among them, the most important thing is of course the formation of the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat.

First industrial revolution

Compared with the bourgeoisie composed of businessmen in the workshop handicraft period, the industrial bourgeoisie has stronger enterprising spirit and consciousness of seeking development in free competition. Its achievements based on machinery industry are far from comparable to those of the old bourgeoisie. The ability of industry to transform agriculture, the ability to absorb free labor, the influence on the whole society, and the competition in the international market all make capitalism play a leading role in the trend of world history and quickly change the contrast between capitalist and pre-capitalist forces. /kloc-the bourgeois revolution and reform in the 0/9th century swept the world, and the initial formation of the capitalist world system in the middle of this century is the embodiment of this historical change. Feudalism and the social system before feudalism can only give way to capitalism. The proletariat, that is, the industrial workers, is another brand-new social interest group. It is different from the workers in manual workshops in the past. It has no small plots of land, no traditional production tools and no patriarchal clan system. This is purely a hired worker. The working conditions of using the machine and the centralized working environment connected with the machine make it centralized, unified and disciplined. Before long, they gradually realized that their group had the same fate and the same wishes and requirements. This is usually called class consciousness, knowing that you belong to the same group. Later, under the guidance of scientific theory, the concept of class consciousness was realized. Of course, these are only advanced workers. As a social group, workers struggle for their own interests and social status, thus forming a historical trend and adding new content to world history. It is this trend that promotes the development of socialism from utopia to science in the ideological field. With the gradual combination of socialism and the workers' movement, this trend has become stronger and stronger, and it has become one of the historical trends in the19th century.

The formation and development of the two social classes and the exclusion of competitors by the machinery industry have divided and reorganized the original middle class. The so-called middle class, also known as petty bourgeoisie, includes small business owners, shopkeepers, craftsmen and vendors. A few of them, squeezed by the machine industry, went bankrupt, and a large number of them were forced to be employed in factories and become part of the working class. Most people still exist, but many people feel precarious and face the threat of bankruptcy. Although more people have not yet faced the crisis, they are also worried about the prospects. Therefore, it has become another social interest group, eager to gain a place in the great social changes and strive to maintain and improve its social status. /kloc-there are many schools of petty-bourgeois socialism in the 0/9 century, and its root lies in this. Among them, the tendency of anarchism generally reflects the mood of the bankrupt; The theory of vigorously advocating the retention of small private ownership is often reflected by the petty bourgeoisie with anxiety. The petty bourgeoisie is keen.