How did Minnan dialect come from?

Minnan dialect, also called Heluo dialect or Taiwanese, has a population of about 60 million. Minnan dialect is mainly distributed in Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Datian and Sanming in the south of Fujian, Youxi, Longyan, Zhangping in the west and most parts of Taiwan Province Province, with a population of nearly 30 million.

Minnan Language-Language Introduction Minnan Language Today's Minnan language is a dialect gradually formed by the exchange and combination of Bamin ancient sounds and foreign languages on the basis that Yidi people (indigenous to ancient Fujian and Vietnam) and northern Han people moved to Fujian many times in the past, especially in the Tang and Song Dynasties.

Minnan dialect retains a considerable number of phonetics and vocabulary in ancient China, especially in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and is called the living fossil of ancient Chinese in China by linguists at home and abroad. Therefore, studying and exploring the development of Minnan dialect will play a positive role in protecting and carrying forward China's ancient language heritage, studying other languages in China and the social, economic and cultural fields of ancient Fujian and Vietnam.

Minnan dialect-phonetic characteristics

The phonetic features of Minnan dialect are as follows:

1, most voiced words in ancient times can be flat, and today they don't exhale;

2, reading knowledge, boarding, etc. , sometimes keep the broken sound, as [t], [? 0? 2];

3. No light lip sounds [v] and [F];

4. It rhymes with [-m], [-p], [-t] and [-k]; 5. There are seven tones, most of which are different from the ancient tone system.

In addition, in Minnan language, there are great differences between written language and white language. White pronunciation represents the long-standing source of local dialects. According to textual research, it is a unique phonetic system formed by the combination of Chinese brought by the migration of Han people from the Central Plains to the south in Qin and Han Dynasties and the local languages of Fujian and Vietnam. On the other hand, the phonology is the expression that the local dialect is close to the authoritative dialect (ancient elegance and vulgarity, common language, modern Putonghua, modern Chinese, vocabulary, grammar, etc.). ).

Minnan dialect-language classification

Minnan dialect, also known as Heluo dialect, has two versions:

One: Heluo dialect was originally the official language of Shang Dynasty. When the Shang Dynasty spread, it was destroyed by Xidi nationality (namely Zhou nationality). The upper-class businessmen who stayed in Heluo Min dialect were forced to move to Luoyi as slaves, and a new capital was established in Zhou. The lower-class people were assigned to Wei, Lu and Qi as serfs. A few tenacious businessmen who survived in the east had to return to Jiangnan to develop industry and commerce with rich resources, while those who lived in the southeast coast formed the Yue nationality.

Two: The origin of Minnan dialect is in the Yellow River and Luoshui Valley, commonly known as "Heluo dialect". This is because in the Western Jin Dynasty, the eight surnames of Lin, Huang, Chen, Zheng, Zhan, Qiu, He and Hu in the Central Plains moved south to avoid the war and settled by the unnamed river, which was named "Jinjiang" to show that it came from the Jin Dynasty. This also brought Heluo dialect to Fujian and evolved into three dialect families: northern Fujian, central Fujian and southern Fujian. After emigrating to Taiwan Province Province, Minnan people brought Minnan dialect to Taiwan Province Province. Unexpectedly, the place where Heluo dialect was originally spoken no longer speaks Heluo dialect.

Minnan dialect is one of the eight major dialects in China. It is divided into five dialects:

Xiamen dialect area: Xiamen, Jinmen and Tongan.

Quanzhou dialect area: Quanzhou, Shishi, Jinjiang, Hui 'an, Nan 'an, Yongchun, Dehua and Anxi.

Zhangzhou Dialect Area: Zhangzhou, Longhai, Zhangpu, Xiao Yun, Dongshan, Zhaoan, Huaan, Changtai, Pinghe and Nanjing.

Longyan dialect area: Longyan City and Zhangping County.

Datian dialect area: a part of Datian County and Youxi County.

Minnan language-use area

Minnan dialect is mainly used in southern Fujian such as Xiamen, Zhangzhou and Quanzhou, and Longyan in western Fujian. In addition, the most widely spoken Minnan dialect in other provinces is Taiwan Province Province, while in the island of Taiwan Province Province, Minnan dialect is almost the same as Zhangzhou dialect and Quanzhou dialect, except in mountainous areas. Among them, Minnan dialect, which is popular in Taiwan Province and Taipei, is slightly biased towards Quanzhou dialect; Minnan dialect, which is popular in Tainan and Kaohsiung, is slightly biased towards Zhangzhou dialect. In addition to Taiwan Province Province, the languages of Chaoshan, Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan Island in Guangdong Province as well as Singapore, Philippine, Malay and Sumatra in Southeast Asian countries also belong to Minnan.

According to the internal characteristics of Minnan dialect, Fujian has five sub-dialect areas, which are divided into Xiamen dialect areas: mainly distributed in Xiamen, Jinmen, Tongan and other areas; Quanzhou dialect area: mainly distributed in Quanzhou, Shishi, Jinjiang, Hui 'an, Nan 'an, Yongchun, Dehua and Anxi; Zhangzhou dialect area: mainly distributed in Zhangzhou, Longhai, Zhangpu, Xiao Yun, Dongshan, Zhaoan, Hua 'an, Changtai, Pinghe and Nanjing; Longyan dialect area: mainly distributed in Longyan city, Shanghang, Changting and Zhangping counties; Datian dialect area: Datian County, Youxi County, etc.

Minnan dialect is distributed in Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Datian, Youxi in southern Fujian and Longyan and Zhangping in western Fujian, as well as in Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Kaohsiung, Taoyuan, Miaoli, Keelung, Nantou, Pingtung, Changhua, Hualien, Chiayi, Yilan, Yunlin, Taitung, Hsinchu and Penghu in Taiwan Province Province. The user population is nearly 30 million. Shantou, Chaozhou, Chenghai, Chaoan, Raoping, South Australia, Puning, Huilai, Chaoyang, Jieyang, Jiedong, Jiexi, Liuhe, Shanwei, Lufeng and Haifeng in the east of Guangdong Province. The user population is about100000. Zhanjiang, Haikang, Xuwen, Suixi, Lianjiang, Maoming, Wuchuan, Dianbai and other counties and cities in Leizhou Peninsula in southern Guangdong have a population of over 4 million. The population of Haikou, Qiongshan, Wenchang, Tunchang, Qionghai, Ding 'an, Wanning, Chengmai, Changjiang, Dongfang, Ledong, Lvshui, Baisha, Yaxian, Baoning, Qiongzhong, Lingao and Danxian in Hainan Province exceeds 4 million. About 6.5438+0.4 million people in Wenzhou, Cangnan, Pingyang, Taishun, Dongtou and other counties and cities in Zhejiang speak Minnan dialect. About 400,000 people in Guangrao, Guangfeng, Yushan and other cities and counties in Jiangxi speak Minnan dialect. Nearly 300,000 people in Liuzhou, Pingnan, Pingle, Luchuan and other cities and counties in Guangxi speak Minnan dialect. There are hundreds of thousands in Hong Kong and Macao. Overseas Chinese in Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and other countries in Southeast Asia have a population of at least100000.

The spread of Minnan dialect is not only in southern Fujian, but has already surpassed provincial and national boundaries. The most popular Minnan dialect in other provinces is Taiwan Province Province, while in Taiwan Province Province, almost all Minnan dialects close to Zhangzhou and Quanzhou dialects are spoken, except Gaoshan area. According to preliminary investigation, Taichung and Taipei are slightly biased towards Quanzhou, while Tainan and Kaohsiung are slightly biased towards Zhangzhou. It is said that the migration of Minnan people to Taiwan Province Province began in the Yuan Dynasty, and the large-scale migration was in the middle of17th century. A large number of Minnan people crossed the sea with Zheng Chenggong and recovered Taiwan Province Province from the Dutch invaders. For more than 300 years, Minnan people, Han people in other areas and their Gaoshan compatriots have jointly developed this treasure island of the motherland. In the life and struggle of the same nation, Minnan dialect has been kept in the mouth of the people of Taiwan Province Province as the main communication tool. Especially today, the economic and cultural exchanges between the mainland and Taiwan Province Province are closer, and the buddies in Taiwan Province Province are constantly going to the mainland to seek roots and visit relatives and friends, so Minnan dialect is even more important.

In addition to Taiwan Province Province, many overseas Chinese in Chaoshan, Leizhou Peninsula, Hainan Island, Jiangsu, Wenzhou, Taizhou, Zhejiang and Southeast Asian countries also use Minnan. According to preliminary statistics, there are nearly 60 million people who speak this dialect at home and abroad.

Minnan language-origin history

Before the Han Dynasty, Minnan was an indigenous people of Guyue nationality. In the second year of Yongjia in the Jin Dynasty (308), the first great disaster of the Han nationality in the Central Plains-"Yongjia Rebellion", the gentry of the Central Plains had crossed the south, and eight surnames, Lin, Chen, Huang, Zheng, Zhan, Qiu, He and Hu, took the lead in Fujian, bringing the Chinese language of the Yellow River and Luoshui River basins in the Central Plains at that time. Later, Hou Jing's rebellion, Sui and Tang Chinese when he entered Fujian in 1969, and Wang Gushi's entry into Fujian to establish Fujian infiltrated and merged together to form the present Minnan dialect. The origin of the above-mentioned entry into Fujian is recorded in detail in the genealogy of Fujian surnames such as Chen, Lin and Huang. There are many ancient Chinese in Minnan dialect, so it is called "the living fossil of language" by academic circles. Minnan language has always been valued by linguists at home and abroad. This is of great significance to the phonetic construction of ancient Chinese, the interpretation of ancient books and the study of Chinese history.

Minnan Dialect-Development Course

The Spread of Minnan Dialect in Taiwan Province and the Formation of Heluo Dialect

During the Northern Song Dynasty, a city shipping company in charge of foreign trade was established in Quanzhou and other ports, which made Quanzhou a famous international commercial port at that time and made overseas maritime transportation very convenient. Since then, many Minnan people have emigrated overseas (including Taiwan Province Province) because of political, economic or other factors, so they brought their mother tongue-Minnan dialect. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, there was a drought in southern Fujian, and Zheng Zhilong recruited thousands of people to settle in Taiwan Province Province. Most of them settled in Taiwan Province Province, and they also traded and even married with the native Minnan people in Taiwan Province Province (mostly Pingpu people), which promoted the blood relationship between the Han nationality and the indigenous people in Taiwan Province Province and integration of language.

From the16th century, western European countries began to carry out various overseas colonization plans. Starting from 1624, the Netherlands and Spain successively occupied the southern and northern Taiwan Province provinces. In particular, the Dutch ruled Taiwan Province Province for nearly 40 years, implemented the kingdom system, and recruited Minnan people after recovering Taiwan Province Province. Most of the Han people who came to Taiwan Province were born in Zhangzhou and Quanzhou. Under the long-term rule of Pingpu and Dutch, the Minnan language brought by immigrants has also infiltrated some new language factors. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng Chenggong led an army to capture Taiwan Province Province and drive away the Dutch. The Zheng family was born in Quanzhou, and Chen Yonghua, the founder of Zheng's culture and education system, was also from Quanzhou. Most of the soldiers and civilians he brought with him came from Quanzhou. Therefore, at this time, the Minnan dialect in Taiwan Province Province is dominated by Quanzhou accent.

1683, Shi Lang conquered Taiwan Province, the Zheng Dynasty perished, and the Qing court officially ruled Taiwan Province Province. The following year, in order to prevent Zheng's adherents, the Qing court issued a ban on crossing Taiwan and set strict conditions to restrict people from crossing Taiwan. Among them, Guangdong nationality was forbidden to go to Taiwan, which led to the late arrival of Hakkas in Taiwan provinces. The development of Taiwan Province Province is almost dominated by Minnan people, and the language of Taiwan Province Province is mainly Minnan. During the reign of Gan Yong, the ban was gradually relaxed. 1862, due to the peony club incident, Bao Zheng, an imperial envoy from Shen Minnan, came to Taiwan to deal with defense, and lifted the ban on crossing Taiwan for nearly 200 years in the name of "opening a mountain to help fans". During the more than 200 years when the Qing court ruled Taiwan Province Province, the number of Fujian people coming to Taiwan increased sharply, and the language of immigrants spread to all parts of Taiwan Province Province with their footprints. In the future, due to convenient transportation and floating population, the two languages will be confused. Except for a few areas such as Yilan and Lugang, a new Minnan language is widely used in Taiwan Province, which is neither Zhang nor Quan, but Zhang Hequan. The linguist Hong (1987, 1-2) called it "Lan".

After the Sino-Japanese War, the Qing court was defeated and ceded Taiwan Province Province to Japan. During the Japanese rule of Taiwan Province Province, the policy of "Mandarin" (Japanese) was implemented in education. Japanese is dominant in politics, and the Taiwanese language used by the people is inevitably influenced by it. Until today, we can still find traces of Japanese influence from the present Heluo dialect. 1945, at the end of World War II, Japan was defeated and the National Government accepted Taiwan Province Province; After the war, the civil war broke out in China, and the Kuomintang government was defeated, bringing a large number of troops and refugees into Taiwan Province Province. This is the largest migration activity in the history of Taiwan Province Province. Under the influence of the movement of "Mandarin" (this time Beijing dialect), Heluo once again joined the new corpus.

Brief introduction of Minnan language-Minnan language

Fujian is called Fujian for short, and Minnan language refers to the south of Fujian. Geographically speaking, Quanzhou, Xiamen, Zhangzhou, Putian and Longyan all belong to southern Fujian, but the word "southern Fujian" in Minnan dialect we usually say has a specific meaning, excluding Putian and Longyan, which is mainly divided according to language, culture and customs. Putian dialect is slightly different from Minnan dialect. Longyan, on the other hand, speaks Hakka. Neither of these places belongs to the Minnan language family. Therefore, the narrow sense of Minnan only refers to three regions-Quanzhou-Xiamen-Zhangzhou. However, as a specific culture, Minnan dialect has far-reaching influence, and other affected places also speak Minnan dialect, which has the same cultural identity, so it also belongs to the root of Minnan dialect. We can call it Pan-Minnan. Below.

Minnan dialect is a branch of Minnan dialect. During the Three Kingdoms Period in China at the end of Han Dynasty, there was a war in the Central Plains, and refugees began to enter Fujian, which changed the original "Baiyue" indigenous language and gradually formed the earliest Fujian dialect. However, the large-scale entry of Han people into Fujian began with the "Yongjia disaster". As the Jinshi family moved south, a large number of northern Han Chinese entered Fujian, which brought the so-called "fifteen-tone system" in the north in the 3rd century, and "Quanzhou dialect" gradually formed at this time.

In the Tang Dynasty, Zheng Chen and Chen Yuanguang and his son led the troops into Fujian to suppress rebellion, and then settled in Zhangzhou, bringing the Middle Ages in the north in the 7th century. /kloc-in the 20th century, Wang Chao brothers led troops into the rebellion in Huang Chao, Fujian Province, and brought them into the Middle Ages at that time. From the above two groups of immigrants, the northern spoken language has evolved into the basis of the so-called "Zhangzhou dialect".

Minnan Language —— A Random Talk on Language

What language is Minnan dialect? Some people say it's "Fulao dialect" and some people say it's "raccoon dialect" as far back as 1500 years ago, or even earlier. In order to escape the war, the Han people in Luoshui area of the Yellow River moved to Gwangju, Henan Province. Their culture was brought here by their descendants, then moved to Minnan, and finally crossed the Strait to Taiwan Province Province. The languages that inherit this culture in southern Fujian and Taiwan Province Province are what we now call "Minnan dialect", which is the calendar of China traditional culture.

Minnan dialect

In the long history, the significance of Minnan dialect lies in that our ancestors avoided the language reform brought about by the ethnic integration of the Central Plains during the great migration and completely preserved the ancient Chinese pronunciation of the Han Dynasty, that is, the standard pronunciation of the Central Plains. The inexhaustible Minnan classics for us now are nothing else. The following are three-character classics, thousands of words, universities, the doctrine of the mean, the Analects of Confucius and the Book of Songs. What's more worth mentioning is that the language used in the translation of Buddhist scriptures at that time was the Central Plains Chinese in the early Tang Dynasty, and the "Heluo dialect" used in Minnan dialect was the "mother tongue" of Central Plains Chinese in the Tang Dynasty. Later, Buddhist scriptures were spread to Japan by Japanese students with katakana, but it is useless so far. Today, Japanese people recite Buddhist scriptures and recite poems in Minnan dialect and pronounce them in Chinese, which is similar to that of Minnan people. This is enough to explain why many Buddhist scriptures are transliterated or reported in Putonghua, but they are easy to understand in Minnan dialect. This is why many mages often lament that the loss of Chinese pronunciation in Minnan dialect is a great loss to those who recite Buddhist scriptures. Proud, today's Minnan language has become one of the representatives of 60 major languages on the earth, and it has also been recorded on the gold-plated record of the "Releaser" spacecraft launched by the United States in 1997, looking for bosom friends in the vast galaxy. Professor Li Rulong, a language expert who takes Minnan as the Chinese reference system, said that Minnan language contains many elements of ancient Chinese, whether it is pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar. In this regard, relevant experts have made a relatively full comparison. Learning ancient Chinese and mastering the accent of Fujian dialect, especially Minnan dialect, has more advantages than understanding dialects in other regions. For example, "Ding" usually refers to an iron pot in ancient Chinese, and the pronunciation of Minnan dialect is consistent with that of ancient Chinese. But people in other places are not as convenient to understand as people in southern Fujian. Professor Li said that modern industrial Chinese, which evolved from ancient Chinese, has a deep relationship with Minnan dialect. If we can master the characteristics of Minnan language and compare it with modern Chinese, we can accelerate the understanding and mastery of modern Chinese. In early Chinese teaching, we usually start with pronunciation, and then understand the meaning and meaning of words from the perspective of the connection between Putonghua and dialects. Now this method has been forgotten or even abandoned. Many people think that dialects will interfere with Chinese learning, but this is actually a misunderstanding. For example, if you don't understand or speak Minnan dialect, your Mandarin may not be standard. A problem worthy of attention is that in the current Chinese teaching in primary and secondary schools, most teachers are good at the comparative teaching of dialects and Chinese, and exclude the function and role of dialect-assisted teaching. Professor Li said that splendid Chinese culture is mainly expressed in Chinese, but it also contains excellent regional cultural characteristics expressed in different dialects. He believes that mastering Minnan dialect can not only provide a good frame of reference for Chinese learning, but also help to understand and understand Minnan culture.

Minnan dialect

Li Rulong, a well-known expert on Chinese dialects in China, once participated in the establishment of the Dialect Research Office of Xiamen University, and can speak five or six local dialects. He believes that Minnan dialect was first formed in Quanzhou, and then spread southward to Zhangzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou, Leizhou and Hainan, and then spread to Taiwan Province Province and Southeast Asia. The total number of people who speak Minnan dialect has reached more than 70 million, which is the most powerful dialect in ancient Chinese. Minnan dialect is undoubtedly an invisible and immortal bridge to communicate with Chinese across the Taiwan Strait and Southeast Asia. This is what Li Rulong said in an interview with our reporter on the afternoon of the 22nd. During the interview, he also put forward many original opinions on the relationship between Xiamen Minnan dialect and Taiwan Province Minnan dialect, how to learn Minnan dialect and how to popularize Minnan culture. Minnan dialect: it retains the strong dialect of the oldest Chinese.

Reporter: As an expert in dialect research, can you tell us about the formation process and influence scope of Minnan dialect?

Li Rulong: Minnan dialect was formed in the Tang Dynasty and is one of the earliest Chinese dialects in Southeast China. Wu dialect should be the earliest dialect. Due to its proximity to the Yangtze River and the great influence of Mandarin, its local color has faded. Minnan people live in the southeast and have little communication with the Central Plains. On the contrary, Minnan dialect has become the dialect with the most ancient Chinese elements, which has aroused great interest from researchers at home and abroad. The formation of Minnan dialect is multi-source and multi-level, including the "language bottom" of Baiyue nationality, the language of ancient Wu Chu immigrants and the language of ancient Central Plains, forming a unique dialect system. Minnan dialect was first formed in Quanzhou, and then spread southward to Zhangzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou, Leizhou and Hainan, and then spread to Taiwan Province Province and Southeast Asia. The total number of people who speak Minnan dialect has reached more than 70 million, which is the most powerful dialect in ancient Chinese.

Minnan dialect is a centripetal dialect, and most Minnan dialects in different places can communicate with each other. In addition, Minnan dialect also has a feeling of "worshipping orthodoxy", that is, pretending to be orthodox in Chinese and retaining many old words. For example, the "line" of "three people, there must be my teacher" is the ancient Minnan dialect; Minnan dialect calls "eating" "eating"; "Pot" is called "Ding"; "Man" is called "agriculture", which is a very old saying. Speaking Minnan dialect is very helpful for learning ancient Chinese. Because Minnan dialect is stable and conservative, paying attention to the origin of language, it has strong feelings for the original Central Plains culture. People who speak Minnan dialect in different times have great respect for national popular homophones. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, scholars were selected in the imperial examinations, and poems were rhymed in the examinations, and Guang Yun was used, in which the anti-tangent method was absorbed by Minnan dialect. It has formed a unique "literary reading" in Minnan dialect, that is, reading in Putonghua and using Minnan as annotations. The two traditions coexist and are the most complete and firm in the national dialects. Luo Changpei wrote a book "Xiamen Rhyme" when he came to Xiamen University, praising the coexistence of literacy and reading as the fundamental feature of Minnan dialect, which is rare in the national dialect. Minnan dialect is tolerant of Putonghua. Five years of Yongzheng in Qing Dynasty, imperial edict. In view of the fact that Fujian and Guangdong provinces entered Beijing as scholars and Mandarin was not allowed, they ordered the two provinces to set up Yin Zheng Academy. This imperial edict was not taken seriously in Guangdong, but it was implemented very seriously in Fujian, where many orthographic academies were established and many orthographic textbooks were compiled.

I call this phenomenon of reading aloud by voice and speaking in Minnan dialect "bilingual education in enlightenment education". I think this practice is worth popularizing today. Its advantages are as follows: firstly, the tradition of coexistence of dialects and * * * can be passed on without cutting off dialects; The second is to let children discover and use the dialect knowledge they have learned from their parents, from "acquisition" to "acquisition", so that dialects can become alive; Third, the regional culture based on dialect system can be preserved and carried forward. There is no distance between Xiamen and Taiwan Province in Minnan language communication.

Reporter: What are the characteristics of Minnan dialect in Taiwan Province Province?

Li Rulong: The Minnan dialect in Taiwan Province Province is the most similar to that in Xiamen. The Minnan language in Xiamen is a mixture of Zhang Quan and Taiwan Province province, and the Minnan language is also "Zhangquan language". There are no obstacles in the communication between Xiamen and Taiwan Province, but it is difficult to communicate with Zhaoan and Longyan, which is caused by different language sources. I have been to Taiwan Province province. Our house is separated from our second house by a floor, and Yuanchang Township in Chiayi County, Taiwan Province is separated from the Li family's long house by a floor. I have no difficulty in communicating with the villagers there in Minnan dialect. They really "haven't changed their local accent"! Minnan language is a very important language. Taiwan Province Province was once ruled by the Japanese for fifty years, and so was the Kuomintang. The politicians demanded that it be forbidden to speak Minnan in public places, and everyone only whispered at home and in a small area. In this way, the local accent has not changed. It's amazing. Therefore, I say that Minnan dialect is an invisible and immortal bridge to communicate Chinese across the Taiwan Strait and even Southeast Asia.

The Taiwan Province provincial authorities are now doing the opposite, advocating the use of "Minnan dialect" as the "national language", which is just like Lu Xun's criticism that "a person stands on the earth, but pulls out his hair and leaves the earth". Needless to say, there are still millions of people in Taiwan Province Province who don't speak Minnan dialect, so it's really necessary to cancel Putonghua. So, if you close all Chinese newspapers and forbid everyone to speak Mandarin, will it work? This is just the political hype of people with ulterior motives, and it is a way to vent their emotions, which easily leads to the division between ethnic groups. Taiwan Province's "Mandarin" and Minnan dialect can go hand in hand.

She = Iraq

I = Ruan

What =xiuan2 mi4

No =mo2

Grab = clean lia2

Yes = West

Red =ang2

Green =lie2

Eat = clip

Computer = electricity

Pig =die 1

Lake = Oh ......

Neither Chinese nor Pinyin can be expressed clearly unless there is another Pinyin method.

This article comes from the Internet.

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