Introduce Poland.

* * * Republic of Poland (hereinafter referred to as Poland; Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska) is a central European country, bordering Germany in the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia in the south, Ukraine and Belarus in the east, Lithuania and Russia in the northeast and the Baltic Sea in the north.

history

As early as the mid-6th century ~10th century, the primitive commune in Western Slavic began to disintegrate gradually, and feudal land ownership began to emerge. /kloc-In the middle of the 0/0 century, the Polish tribes centered on Gnezno gradually unified other tribes. Mesko I of Piastov family (reigned from 960 to 992) established an early feudal country. In 996, Poland accepted Christianity. 1025, Polesz I (reigned from 992 to 1025) was crowned king of Poland, and Poland became a powerful and unified country.

The period of the establishment and unification of feudal countries (10-65438+mid-5th century)

/kloc-in the middle of 0/2nd century, after Boleslaw III Krzywousty's death (102 ~1kloc-0/38), due to the development of feudal land ownership by princes, nobles and churches and the rise of cities, the whole country was divided into several principalities, and Poland entered the feudal separatist period, which lasted for 200 years. Ladislaus I of Hungary (in the reign of 13 14 ~ 1333) unified Poland, Poland and Kuyawei, and was crowned king of Poland in Cracow in 1320. Kazimierz III Wielki (reign time 1333 ~ 1370) reunified Mazovsky again. However, West Pomeroy and East Pomeroy were also occupied by Brandenburg and Teutonic Knights respectively. Silesia was occupied by the Bohemian royal family. In order to resist the invasion of Teutonic knights, the Polish kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania implemented a dynasty alliance (1385), and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Wadysaw II Jagiellonow? Jagiron is the king of Poland. 14 10, the Polish-Lithuanian coalition forces dealt a devastating blow to the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of grunwald. 1466, East Pomori was recovered.

The first Republic period (65438+mid-5th century-1795)

The recovery of Domori, centered on Gdansk, stimulated the export of Polish grain, and aristocratic manors set up labor manors in succession to engage in commodity grain production. Handicraft workshops appeared in the town. 1505, the parliament passed the constitution, stipulating that the king has no right to issue laws without the consent of the parliament. This weakened the kingship and led to foreign interference. In the face of Moscow's aggressive expansion, the parliaments of the Kingdom of Poland and the Principality of Lithuania passed a resolution in lublin to establish a unified Republic of Poland, and the capital moved from Krakow to Warsaw. Poland has become a multi-ethnic serfdom country with an area of 3 1 000 square kilometers. /kloc-polish serfdom entered a crisis stage in the second half of the 7th century,/kloc-Khmelnitski in 0/648 (богданр). The ruling class also fell apart. 1652, big noble forced the parliament to pass the right of free veto. 1654, Russia declared war on Poland and annexed Ukraine east of Dnieper River. At the beginning of the Northern War, Poland was forced to follow Russia in the war. 1655 Poland-Sweden War broke out, and Poland lost part of its territory. From 1733 to 1735, Russia, Austria, France, Spain and Sardinia competed for Poland, which seriously damaged Poland's sovereignty and national economy.

The political system of the First Republic of Poland was very special and quite advanced at that time, which was called "aristocratic democracy". This system has two pillars, one is called free election of the king, and the king is elected by the nobility. Anyone who is not a noble has no democratic power; One is called free veto. As long as one member of parliament objects, the bill cannot be passed. True democracy is based on the subordination of the minority to the majority, so this aristocratic democracy has caused extreme democracy and anarchy in Poland. This has also led to frequent discussions on controversial issues, leading to the failure to reflect the will of the country, which is also an important factor in Poland's final decline.

/kloc-in the second half of the 0/8th century, capitalism sprouted in the relations of production in Poland. Under the influence of the Enlightenment in Western Europe, small and medium-sized aristocrats and the emerging bourgeoisie launched patriotic innovation movements, but they were influenced by the Russian Queen Catherine II (екатернаааюаю)./kloc-0 Under the influence of the French Revolution, the Polish people pushed the innovation movement to a climax. 179 1 On May 3rd, Poland's four-year parliament passed the May 3rd Constitution (Konstytucja 3 Maja), which abolished the right of free veto and was the earliest constitution in Europe. Catherine II once again intervened militarily in Poland. 1793, Russia and Prussia divided Poland for the second time. 1794, the Polish people held an uprising under the leadership of the national hero Kosciusko, which was later suppressed by Russia. From 65438 to 0795, Russia, Poland and Austria divided Poland for the third time.

Poland was divided up three times.

1772 In May, Russia, Prussia and Austria held talks in Petersburg, and on August 5th, they signed the first treaty to carve up Poland. Accordingly, Poland lost about 35% of its territory and 33% of its population, and became a protectorate of Russia, Poland and Austria. 1October 23rd,1793,65438+Russia and Poland signed the second agreement to carve up Poland. After the second partition, Poland became a small country with a territory of 200,000 square kilometers and a population of 4 million, and became a puppet country of Russia. Without the permission of the czar, the Polish king may not declare war and make peace with foreign countries. 1795 65438+1On October 3rd, Russia and Austria signed an agreement on the third partition of Poland, and Prussia also signed the agreement on October 24th, 65438/kloc-0. According to the agreement, the territory of Poland was completely divided up. "Russia annexed Lithuania, Kurland, West Belarus and West Warren, and pushed the border to the Nieman River-Buge River, with a population of 1.2 million square kilometers, 1.2 million; Austria occupied all of Little Poland, including Krakow and lublin, and a part of Mazovsky, with a total area of * * * 47,500 square kilometers and a population of 65,438+500,000. Prussia won the rest of the western region, Warsaw and part of Matsov Xie, with a population of 1 10,000. " At this point, Poland, which existed for more than 800 years, perished. In the process of dividing Poland three times, Russia occupied about 62% of the original Polish territory, with a total area of over 460,000 square kilometers. Prussia accounts for about 20%, * * about 14. 1 1 10,000 square kilometers; Austria accounts for about 18%, * * about 12 18000 square kilometers. After these three divisions, Poland disappeared from the map of Europe after the national subjugation 123 years.

Period of foreign rule (1795 ~ 19 18)

1809, Napoleon I established the Warsaw Principality in central Poland (Ksi? Stwo Warszawskie), the principality of Warsaw was dismembered after Napoleon's defeat, and its western land became the principality of Poznan (Wielkie Ksi? Stwo Poznanski), under the jurisdiction of Prussia; Establish a neutral Republic of Krakow in Krakow (also known as Free City of Krakow, Rzeczpospolita Krakowska, or Wolne Miasto Krakó w); In its main area, the Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Kongresowe) was established, ruled by Russian czars and kings. 1830165438+1On October 29th, a group of aristocratic youths staged an uprising in Warsaw and failed. /kloc-the Krakow uprising in 0/846 also failed, and Krakow was incorporated into Austria. 1848, the Polish people once again set off a revolution, forcing the Puao authorities to abolish serfdom. June Uprising 1863 spread all over Poland, Lithuania and western Belarus. 1on March 2, 864, the czar government had to issue a decree to liberate serfs. Capitalism in Poland developed greatly after 1864, and the industrial revolution was completed in the 1970s and 1980s. Since the 1980s, the Polish National Democratic Party, the Polish Proletarian Party, the Polish Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland (later renamed the Kingdom of Poland and the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party) have been established one after another. During the First World War, the National Democratic Party took refuge in Russia, the socialist right wing took refuge in Austria and Germany, and only the Social Democratic Party and the socialist left wing resolutely opposed the war.

The second phase of the Republic of China (19 18- 1939)

During World War I, the October Revolution broke out in Russia 19 17. 19 18 On August 29th, the Soviet Russian government issued a decree, announcing the abrogation of all treaties signed between Russia and Austria on the partition of Poland, and recognizing the "undeniable right of independence and reunification" of the Polish people. At the same time, in 19 1 16 10, the German government promised to establish an "independent Polish country". 12 At the end of February, Germany and Austria established the "Provisional Polish State Council" to recruit young people in Poland. Socialist Pitsudski (Joseph Clemens Pi? Sudski, 1867— 1935) was appointed as the Minister of Military and Political Affairs of the Provisional State Council. 19 18,1kloc-0/0 In recent months, Austria-Hungary and Germany tended to disintegrate, thus forming favorable international conditions for the restoration of Poland. 101On October 28th, the Polish patriots in the occupied area established the "Polish liquidation committee" in Krakow. 165438+1On October 7th, the Social Democratic Party established the Polish Provisional People's Government in lublin. On October 23rd, 65438/kloc-0, the Polish government was established in Warsaw, 165438+ 1654381October 23rd, and the government was led by Pierre Suskie. The government of lublin and the liquidation committee of Krakow also announced their acceptance of Pierre Suskie's leadership. 1 18 10 18, Pierre Suskie formed a coalition government in Warsaw, and he became the head of state of the Polish Republic. In this way, since 1795, Poland has been 123 and 19 18 1 to restore independence and rebuild the motherland.

19 19, 19 On February 8, the Supreme Council of the Allies passed a resolution at the Paris Peace Conference, agreeing to rebuild the Polish state and recognize the Republic of Poland, and proposing to draw a temporary dividing line between Russia and Poland, that is, along Grodno, Brest, Khrushchev, Purendale and Carpathian Mountains. However, the Polish government tried to restore the Russian-Polish border line of 1772. To this end, the newly established Republic of Poland launched a war against the newly born socialist country Soviet Russia, known as the Soviet-Polish War in history. 1920 in April, the Polish army invaded vast areas of Ukraine and Belarus, and the Soviet Red Army fought back, but it was finally defeated by the Polish army. Although the Polish army won the final military victory, it could do nothing about the war, leaving the people poor and rich. Finally, the two sides agreed to make peace. 12 In July, British Foreign Secretary George Nathaniel Curzon (1859- 1925) called the Soviet Union on behalf of its allies and proposed a ceasefire. The ceasefire line is roughly the dividing line stipulated in the Paris Peace Conference resolution, so it is called "curzon line". On July 22nd, Poland called for a truce. 1921March 18, Poland and Soviet Russia formally signed a peace treaty between Poland, Russia and Ukraine, namely Riga Treaty. The main contents are as follows: The contracting parties recognize the independence of Ukraine and Belarus, and delimit the eastern border of Poland (the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus are allocated to Poland). At this time, the Polish-Russian border is about 65,438+050 miles east of curzon line. According to this treaty, Poland gained a part of western Ukraine, western Belarus and Lithuania, and the Soviet Union and Russia lost a large area of territory in this war, which also paved the way for the Soviet Union and Germany to carve up Poland in World War II. The border between Poland and Russia (Soviet Union) determined by Riga Treaty has been maintained until1September 939 17. In addition, according to the resolution of 19 19 Paris Peace Conference, Poland won the regions of East Pomeroy and Poznan, but Danzig (later Poland was changed to Gdansk) became an international free city, most of Silesia still belonged to Germany, and the territory of Poland was * * * 388,000 square kilometers. 192 1 In March, Poland became a parliamentary republic, known as the second republic in history.

1926 In May, Pizdesky staged a military coup. He became the prime minister, exercising dictatorship in Poland, arresting people who opposed him in parliament and propagating fascism. In addition, he also actively cooperated with Adolf Hitler, the head of Nazi Germany, and signed the Baud non-aggression treaty. 1938, Poland's * * * production party was dissolved and its main leaders were killed.

During World War II (1939- 1944)

1938 to 10, Hitler raised the issue of Polish Corridor with Poland and threatened Poland with war. 1939 On August 23rd, the Soviet Union and Germany signed a secret protocol of non-aggression and division of spheres of influence (the Soviet Union has always denied the existence of this secret protocol). 1939, 1 In September, Germany raided Poland with blitzkrieg and quickly occupied most of Poland's territory. Polish soldiers and civilians fought bravely. /kloc-in September of 0/7, the Polish government fled abroad and first set up Sicorschi (W? Addis? The government in exile led by General O Eugeniusz Sicorschi). After the defeat of France, the government in exile moved to Britain on 1940. At the same time, in September 17, Soviet leader Stalin (иосивиссарионов) On September 28th, the Germans captured Warsaw, and Poland fell again. The Polish people started the national liberation war against fascism.

194 1 year, Germany attacked the Soviet Union and occupied all Polish territory, and then the Soviet Union established diplomatic relations with the Polish government in exile. 1942, the government in exile established a national army in China. In the same year, with the support of the Soviet Union, the Polish Workers' Party and the People's Army launched an arduous struggle with the Nazi occupation forces. To this end, many people have paid their precious lives. 1943, due to the katyn forest incident, the government in exile broke off diplomatic relations with the Soviet union again.

With the development of the war situation, the Soviet counterattack gradually pushed the front into Poland. 1944 On New Year's Day, the National People's Congress was established at the initiative of the Workers' Party. Aw Bierut) served as chairman. 1944 On July 22nd, the National People's Congress formed the Polish National Liberation Committee in higham, and promulgated the historic July Declaration, announcing the birth of a new Polish country.

1In August, 944, the Soviet Red Army advanced to the suburbs of Warsaw, and the British government in exile ordered the Warsaw Underground National Army to launch an uprising in order to gain greater benefits in the newly-born Polish state power institutions. This is the famous Warsaw Uprising. Because Stalin thought that such irresponsible behavior should not be sympathized, the Soviet army did not give much support to the insurgents in Warsaw. Under the bloody suppression of Nazi Germany, the uprising failed, and the crazy Hitler ordered Warsaw to be razed to the ground, many precious cultural relics were destroyed, and most Warsaw people were sent to death camps. Afterwards, it was proved that the Soviet Union should bear certain moral responsibility for the failure of the Warsaw Uprising. 1945 65438+1October 17, Soviet troops liberated devastated Warsaw. In April, Poland and the Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship, mutual assistance and economic cooperation. In June, the Polish National Liberation Committee was reorganized into a temporary national unity government.

According to the decision of Yalta and Potsdam Conference, the eastern and western borders of Poland were determined, with curzon line as the Bosu border in the east, Bode border in the west moving westward to the Ode-Nice River, and Szczecin and Schvinovis were included in the Polish side of the border. In this way, the whole territory of Poland moved more than 200 kilometers to the west, and the area was reduced by about 76,000 square kilometers compared with that before the war, accounting for about 20% of the lost territory.

In World War II, the Polish people made great sacrifices for the anti-fascist war, and about 6 million Polish soldiers and civilians were killed in this war. Many concentration camps where Nazis slaughtered Jews and other civilians were found in Poland, among which Auschwitz was the most famous. Of all the participating countries, Poland suffered the most casualties in terms of population proportion.

People's Republic of China (PRC) period (1944 ~ 1989)

From 65438 to 0947, Poland held parliamentary elections, Beirut, supported by the Soviet Union, was elected president, and the socialist Cyrankiewicz was appointed Prime Minister. Poland embarked on the road of socialist development, and the western government in exile was basically excluded from the power center. 1948 65438+In February, the Polish Workers' Party and the Polish Socialist Party merged to form the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR). Beirut is the general secretary. The people's government nationalized large and medium-sized industries, transportation and banks, carried out land reform, mobilized the people to complete the three-year plan to restore the national economy (1947 ~ 1949), and improved the national economic situation and people's life. 1On June 7th, 949, Poland joined the people of New China. Starting from 1950, Poland began to implement the six-year plan for developing the national economy (1950 ~ 1955).

1952, Poland changed its name to Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa (PRL) and adopted the Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland. Sawatzki was elected chairman of the State Council and Beirut was appointed chairman of the Council of Ministers. 1956 In March, Beirut died in Moscow, and Ochab succeeded as the first secretary.

However, Poland's social structure, political and cultural traditions, religious beliefs and the development of capitalist economy all show that the establishment of socialism in Poland has congenital defects. However, the dogmatists of the Polish government headed by Beirut totally accepted the socialist model of the Soviet Union. Poland has formulated an economic development strategy of giving priority to the development of heavy industry and industrialization according to the Soviet model and the order of "emphasizing-neglecting-agriculture". This has led to a serious imbalance in the proportion of the national economy, one-sided development of heavy industry, long-term backwardness of agriculture, soaring prices, devaluation of the currency and a decline in people's living standards.

The serious defects of the Soviet model, the deep-rooted anti-Russian rebellious psychology of Poles, the traditions of religion and liberalism, the mistakes of the Polish ruling party, the prevalence of bureaucratic corruption and other comprehensive factors made it extremely difficult to promote socialism in Poland, which led Poland to become the most unstable country in the Eastern European bloc after World War II.

1956, Khrushchev, the supreme leader of the Soviet Union (никитасергеевичх). Later, it turned into a gun battle between the police and the workers. Tanks and security forces also participated in the suppression of workers. According to statistics, 54 people were killed, more than 2,000 people were injured and more than 300 people were arrested in just one day of conflict and riots. In order to calm the already serious situation, the authorities adopted a compromise position. On June 30, the government took some measures to ease the contradiction: the former minister of machinery industry was demoted; The tax collected from Stalin Locomotive and Rolling Stock Factory will be returned to the factory workers in stages; A funeral was held for the victims of the incident and the riots subsided.

1On August 4th, 956, the Polish United Workers' Party decided to cancel GoeMulka (W? Addis? Oh, Gomu Ka) and others criticized and condemned him and released him from prison. In June 65438+1October 65438+September of the same year, Gomer Kadang was elected as a member of the Central Committee. During the Soviet-Polish talks, Mulka opposed the Soviet Union's interference and pressure on Poland's internal affairs and insisted on "Poland's own way". 101October 2 1 day, was elected as the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. At the Eighth Plenary Session of the Second Central Committee of the Party held in June 65438+ 10 of the same year, Gomel Kadang was elected as the first secretary. 1956 ~ 1960 the five-year plan takes the development of consumer goods production and agriculture and the improvement of people's living standards as its main tasks. The meeting criticized the previous principles and policies and put forward a new policy of overcoming "bureaucracy and dogmatism", "strengthening the democratization of the legal system and political life", developing the economy and "improving people's lives faster". However, due to the serious defects of the Soviet model, during the next two five-year plans (196 1 ~ 1970), the proportion of the national economy is still seriously unbalanced.

In February, Poland faced another crisis. Workers, students and citizens in coastal cities such as Gdansk (formerly Danzig) protested against the government's increase in food and daily necessities prices and went on strike, which triggered serious social unrest and later developed into bloody conflicts. On February 20th, 65438, at the Seventh Plenary Session of the Fifth Central Committee, Ge Mulka was dismissed as the first secretary, and Ji Zeke succeeded as the first secretary of the Party. Cyrankiewicz was appointed chairman of the State Council and Jaroszewicz was appointed chairman of the Council of Ministers.

The 1970s was the fastest period of Poland's postwar economic development. The government of Gillek proudly carried out the so-called "three high policies" known as "high speed, high accumulation and high consumption", introduced a large amount of foreign capital and built a large number of projects, which greatly improved people's living standards. Poland is thriving. However, haste makes waste. Behind the apparent prosperity, in the late 1970s, various government subsidies reached 40% of the budget, and foreign debts reached 26 billion dollars. In the 1980s, the government had to take measures to freeze wages and raise the prices of some commodities to avoid the crisis. Poles who have been used to the planned price for a long time are unprepared. When the government announced in July 1980 that the price of meat in "bargain shops" would increase by 40-60%, the dissatisfaction of the masses triggered a nationwide strike.

In September of the same year, the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party dismissed Girek as the first secretary and was succeeded by Stanislaw Kania. In June+10, 5438, Solidarno, a famous trade union organization at that time and the first independent trade union organization in Eastern Europe, appeared, and Lech Vasa was elected as the leader of Solidarno. The strike movement led by the Solidarity Union initially adopted a peaceful way, recognizing socialism as the political foundation of Poland, unifying the leadership role of the Workers' Party and its alliance with the Soviet Union. 198 1 year, the first national congress was held in Gdansk, and it was decided to set up a national committee to replace the National Consultative Committee, and a new political program was adopted, calling on Poland to diversify and establish an "autonomous republic". It is said that solidarity trade union is the main force of Poland's reform, and the leading role of socialism and the United Workers' Party is not mentioned in the trade union program. In the strike movement, the trade union proposed to have its own newspaper, have the right to publish freely and "seize power from the bottom up". The trade union is competing with the government.

At 198 1 the fourth plenary session of the ninth session of the United Labor Party, Kania resigned and Jaruzelski was elected as the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. 19811213 Poland declared a state of war, the solidarity trade union was banned, Walesa and other trade union leaders were detained, and some trade union leaders went underground. The trade union is divided into two factions, and the moderates headed by Walesa advocate avoiding confrontation with the government and advocating consultation and dialogue; Radicals advocate overthrowing the government by violence. Subsequently, there was a major division in society, and those who originally supported the Solidarity Union turned to support the government. 1982 in February, the parliament passed a new trade union law, demanding the reconstruction of new trade unions. 1982 In February, Parliament passed the new trade union law, demanding the reconstruction of new trade unions, and the wartime state ended in 1983 in July. 1984, Poland declared an amnesty, while Walesa and others tried to legalize solidarity. The situation in Poland has entered a short period of stability.

The Third Republic Period (1989 to present)

1986, due to Gorbachev of the Soviet Union (михаилсергеевичго) 1From February to April, 1989, the Polish United Workers' Party and the Solidarity Union (Rozmowy Okr? g？ Self Sto? U) After discussion, the United Workers' Party agreed that the union is legal. In June, Poland held a national election, and Solidarity won 99% of the Senate seats. On September 12, Mazowiecki of Solidarity Trade Union formed a coalition government led by Solidarity Trade Union, including Solidarity Peasant Party and Democratic Party. Jaruzelski, former leader of the United Workers' Party, became the first president with a term of six years. On February 29th of the same year, the 65438+ Parliament passed a constitutional amendment and decided to change the name of the country to Poland, and the white eagle with a crown on the red background was restored as the national emblem of Poland. History calls Poland the Third Republic. Poland has formally embarked on the development road of western parliamentary democracy in politics and market economy based on privatization in economy.

Soon, Jaruzelski resigned as general secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party. Walesa and his supporters declared that the round-table agreement was outdated and demanded that the president resign and hold new presidential and parliamentary elections. 1990 65438+1On October 27th, the Polish United Workers' Party held its1/national congress and announced that it would stop its activities. A big party that had been in power for 45 years and once owned nearly 3 million party member was dissolved. 1990 Walesa proposed to run for the presidency, which was opposed by the Mazowiecki government faction. Solidarity trade unions are divided into centrist agreement meeting supporting Walesa and democratic action meeting supporting Mazowiecki's civil rights movement.

General elections were held in June 1990 1 1, and Walesa was elected president in the second round of voting. He proposed to "establish a free, democratic and prosperous new republic", economically develop a market economy based on private ownership, lift restrictions on free land sales, and emphasize opening to the whole of Europe and the world in foreign policy.

Since then, Poland has realized the change of regime and political system, and began to move closer to the West. 1995, Walesa lost to kwasniewski in the presidential election. Economically, Poland's transformation has brought pain. However, Poland remains one of the most successful countries in the economic transformation in Eastern Europe and has achieved steady economic growth. 1999, Poland joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and in 2004, Poland joined the European Union together with other 10 European countries.