What role did the ideological emancipation movement of the word "a hundred schools of thought contend" play?

The reason why a hundred schools of thought contend has become the swan song of history.

The primitive culture of China, represented by hundred schools of thought, has been formed in the lively and free spirit of a hundred schools of thought contending, but the movement of a hundred schools of thought contending that gave birth to the primitive culture is gone forever, just like a gorgeous rainbow, fleeting, isn't it strange? It is not surprising that this is actually limited by the historical environment and beyond the control of manpower.

A hundred schools of thought contend is the product of the transition from classical absolutism to centralized absolutism.

Zhou people independently entered civilization from primitive society on the "western soil" because the power of Zhou king came from the domination of patriarchal clan system on family members and family property in the late period, and was born out of the state power of clan organs-Zhou royal family, which was autocratic in nature. With the demise of Yin and the eastward expedition, Zhou people replaced Yin people as the master of the world, thus pushing this autocratic rule to the whole country. However, Zhou Guo was originally a small country. In order to effectively occupy the vast East, they had to enfeoffment their clansmen and in-laws to various places and establish a country with the nature of a military stronghold, so as to control the vast wilderness and various hostile ethnic groups in the wilderness. This made the collective strength and unity of the people of China, in fact, become the guarantee for the survival and prosperity of the dynasty. While constantly using armor to deal with savages, princes and nobles always insisted on governing the country mainly with the system of rites and music, and implemented the auxiliary system, the parliamentary system and the participation of Chinese people in politics evolved from the old rules of tribal system until the Spring and Autumn Period [19], with the aim of preventing excessive differentiation of Chinese people and ensuring that the Panshi clan, as a royal screen vassal, would never be separated. In order to avoid the debate about the nature of society, let's call the Western Zhou Dynasty, an autocratic regime with both monarchy and primitive democracy, a natural continuation from primitive society, classical absolutism. Classical absolutism is the magic weapon for the long-term stability of the Western Zhou regime, and the core of classical absolutism is the unified system of rites and music.

However, the ups and downs of things are natural. Rites, such as the dike of a river, are designed to show the order of respect and inferiority, to make things suitable and frugal, to prevent their extravagance and to keep their disadvantages, so as to effectively dominate everything and serve the masses. However, in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there was a situation of "abandoning rituals and hating pleasure, and the size exceeded each other", and the dike lost its binding force on the river. The power to give orders was transferred from the emperor to the vassal, and from the vassal to the doctor. Some places have even reached the point of "accompanying the minister in national life". According to the system of the Emperor of Heaven, kings of various countries "set up two views and take the road", and people named Guan Zhong and Ji also "returned to Yong and withdrew, dancing eight styles in court". "Those who obey the law and keep the right will be humiliated in the world, and those who exceed their authority will be honored." Even Xia Zi's high-legged disciple said, "It is gorgeous and pleasant to watch disputes, and people are happy to listen to Confucius' teachings." Zhou people used "three hundred courtesy, three thousand dignity" and "things should be controlled, and we should be happy to guard against them", but the results were "people are wrong about their teeth", "people are wrong about their ministers", "people are still forgetting their relatives", "people are still striving for profits and forgetting their righteousness" and "people are still disorderly", which shows that they are building a family. At the same time, there are "Wang Guan has no job, and praises are scattered", "Sang Jian, Pu Shang, Zheng, Wei, Song and Zhao all came out together", which is called "the best of the ancient times", and he still wants to lie down after listening to ancient music, and "listens to Zheng and Wei tirelessly", and then uses the method of "taking a break from writing".

Correspondingly, from the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, countries extended their direct jurisdiction to the wilderness by means of penetrating the land and serving the distant land, establishing their capitals and setting up counties. The development of private ownership, fierce political struggle and political reform have prompted the disintegration of the state family. The status of barbarians rose because they were transformed into small farmers, got farmland and were recruited as soldiers. However, China people have lost the protection of their clans and the qualification to be members of the ruling tribes. They are "ministers of common people" in the country, "ministers of unruly people" in the opposition, and "both are Shu Ren", all of which have become editors of the new territorial country. The boundary between the country and the wild disappears, and the pattern of opposition between the country and the wild no longer exists. It is no longer necessary to unify China people, and to deal with savages with special policies of unification with differences. The system of rites and music is destined to become a political past tense, and classical absolutism finally dies after being pursued for hundreds of years.

In fact, with the formation of territorial countries, centralized and autocratic rule that adapts to political relations and regional relations has already appeared. The county system replaces the feudal system, the official system and Mi Lu system replace the feudal system and the city awarding system, the title system and the year-end performance appraisal system replace the pilgrimage system, the written law replaces the customary law, and the new level based on the rich and the poor replaces the old level based on the parental level. This has become the general trend of political development in the Warring States period. However, due to the deep-rooted influence of tradition, it takes time to perfect the new system, and the immaturity of centralized absolutism can be seen everywhere. Its important performance is:

1. Not perfect. It is often customized according to the situation, treating headache and foot pain, and lacks systematic planning. For example, Li Kui thought: "You shouldn't be a thief in a hurry", so he formulated six Laws, which first listed the theft law and the thief law. Because "thieves must be caught illegally", we followed the prison law and the arrest law. Equipment law is a law that aggravates or lightens punishment according to the situation, and there are only miscellaneous laws. This tendency is also prominent in Shang Yang's political reform and the bamboo slips of Qin Law unearthed from Yunmeng Qin Tomb in Hubei Province. On the other hand, the situation of Tang law is just the opposite. At the same time, the number of Tang laws expanded to 12 and 500, while the thief law and thief law decreased to 1, which were called thief law and thief law. Moreover, in addition to the law of "positive punishment and conviction", there are also orders, formulas and formulas that play the role of "setting an example", "prohibiting infringement of good and evil" and "doing things according to things" to supplement. [2 1] Comparing the two, we can't help but say that the laws in the Warring States period were still very rough and could not meet the various needs of the rulers to strengthen autocratic centralization. In addition, in addition to the 20 th military title of Qin State and the special title of Chu State, the titles of Sanjin, Qi and Yan in the Warring States Period were only Qing and Dafu [22] 235 respectively; Although all countries have "elite soldiers to train talents" as standing soldiers, they still rely on temporary recruitment from farmers to cope with large-scale wars, and so on, which can be regarded as examples of imperfect centralization and absolutism mechanisms, so we will not go into details.

2. Inconsistent. Due to the different geographical areas, historical and cultural traditions of the Seven Chivalrous Men, their respective centralization of authority is also very different, and their development is very uneven. For example, almost all countries set up counties before border areas to consolidate border defense, and then developed into a county system, while Qi never set up counties, but divided the whole country into five capitals; In order to meet the needs of politics and economy and strengthen the control of lieutenant generals, the bureaucracies of all countries have basically embarked on the road of "dividing officials into civil servants and military officers". The civil service system and military officer system headed by Xianghe, except Chu, has never set up a phase, and still follows the old system of Spring and Autumn, with Ling Yin as the highest official position; As for the positions below Xiang, Jiang and Ling Yin, they are very different. During the Warring States period, although the bureaucratic system was widely adopted, the system of titles of monarchs was still retained to varying degrees, but the sources of titles of monarchs were quite different. Relatives, consorts, ministers and queens of Jin, Qi and Chu monarchs account for a high proportion. Only the State of Qin has a 20-level military title system, so most of them are active ministers. In a word, the political system of the Warring States is different, generally, Sanjin is a system, and Chyi Chin and Chu are a system [22]207, which is far from establishing a unified centralized and autocratic system.

3. not sure. After the disintegration of the system of rites and music, it is impossible for everyone to know clearly what methods to use to maintain political power and social order and what ideas to use as the guiding ideology for the implementation of rule. For example, the article "Guan Xu" said: "The husband is destroyed at home; Recording six animals means stopping life; Farming with farmland is prohibited; Being with an upright person is called leaving love; With a registered permanent residence, it is called winning the prize. Five can't be used, so the king is partial and inexhaustible. " Deviation focuses on a certain point, but among the five flawed tax systems, even the author himself has not made it clear which one is the best. Xunzi mostly discussed how to establish a new system, but he only outlined a basic framework. Once it goes deep into the operational level, he can only suggest that all countries might as well "the name of punishment is from business, the name of nobility is from Zhou, the name of literature is from ceremony, and the name of literature is added to everything, and it has become a popular song from midsummer". [10] Changing the name obviously failed to integrate various systems. Scholars are discussing, choosing, synthesizing and arguing, and two research centers have emerged, which are centered on Gong Xue in Xia Ji and Xiangfu in Lv Buwei. Monarchs are more worried and anxious about humiliating their teachers, "the evil in the world" and how to "call the emperor king". King or bully? Should we rule the country by virtue, by courtesy, by virtue, by emotion, by rule of law, or simply by doing nothing? It's really dazzling and indecisive. As a result, the prince of Yan believed in the theory of "abdication" and passed the throne to Yan Xiangzi. [ 13]

The classical absolutism with the system of rites and music as the core is dead, the new centralized autocratic rule has not grown up, and the government's control ability has been discounted, which can not but leave a lot of free space for scholars. Sages "a monarch can't live alone, and a country can't live alone", like birds, "choose wood to live", can enter the phase, perform a magnificent living theater, and get special respect for the monarch, teacher and friend. Otherwise, they will gather their disciples to give lectures, write books, and spread them all over the world. Even if you speak loudly, don't worry about taboos. At best, it's just "look if you can, hide if you can't." The monarch often "feels guilty" after listening to their propaganda. This kind of situation is hard to see after Qin and Han Dynasties. Therefore, we say that a hundred schools of thought contend is the product of the transition from classical absolutism to centralized absolutism.

(2) A hundred schools of thought contend is a unique cultural phenomenon during the period from the coexistence of the seven countries to reunification.

The Warring States period was an era without an emperor. Not only is there no son of heaven, but there is also no overlord who can be recognized. Seven heroes stand side by side. "The strong are better than the weak, the many are outnumbered, and the soldiers are restless." After the defeat, no one came out to uphold justice. If you are not careful, you may be defeated. If you are not careful, you may die. Therefore, the weak seek strength and the strong want to dominate the world, which is a serious issue facing every monarch.

How can I be strong? The seven countries are different in size, but their territory is thousands of miles, and the initial 70 miles and the initial 100 miles of Bitang are many times larger. It can't be said that there are no conditions for development. The key depends on whether there are people.

In order to solve the problems of "the population of neighboring countries is not too small, and the number is not too large" and "the number is not enough", many countries have introduced many policies of "expelling many immigrants", trying to break the deadlock of "people still have to go" and bring others' "people-oriented" to themselves. For example, the state of Qin used the method of "benefiting its farmland and house, and repeating the third" to attract the people of Sanjin to "make it work"; Qi put forward six main points of "seizing, taking risks, benefiting, being difficult, opening, closing and killing", demanding the government to attach great importance to it. He thought that if "traffic jams are not clearly stopped and many immigrants are tried to be driven, the water will still flow backwards", it would be impossible to get it, and so on. But the wise monarch knows better the truth that "the land belongs to the city, the city belongs to the people, and the people belong to the sages". He firmly believes that "the sage gets to the people, the people get to the city, and the city gets to the ground". With sages, everything is available. Therefore, they don't expect to attract people by "doing whatever they want", but emphasize "getting what they want", that is, starting with respecting the sages and relying on their morality and influence to bring the world back. [12] From this point of view, the respect for sages in the Warring States period has an extraordinary significance: some wise sages are obviously regarded as spiritual leaders who can inspire the people. Wei Wenhou wanted to do dry wood, but refused to accept it. It was "making a million dollars, but he went to the museum at the right time", so everyone was happy. He said to me, "My gentleman is good and upright, and I respect dry wood; My king is very loyal, and Duan Gan's mother is a dragon. " Qin Xingbing wanted to attack Wei, but Sima Tang remonstrated, saying, "Duan Ganmu, a sage, Wei Lizhi, is all over the world. Can't you add more soldiers?" Qin Jun thought so, but dared not attack it. [12] According to Qi Xian, Duan Ganmu plays a role in stabilizing people's hearts internally and expanding their influence externally. At the critical moment, a sage can reach a million soldiers, and the role of respecting sages is not small.

"Shuo Wen Jie Zi" says: "There are many talents in the sage." From the original form of the word, the ancient meaning of virtue refers more to ability. Except for a few great sages who can unify the rulers and stabilize the people with their morality, most of them have only one skill. However, some of them "dare to speak their minds", some are quiet as a mirror, some can make suggestions, some can lobby, some can attack cities and plunder land, some can break ground and accumulate food, some can do things, and some can write books, from "being angry and afraid of the world, living in peace" to "crowing and stealing dogs", which is enough to solve disputes for the master, although its role is temporary. This is mainly because the old system of rites and music and patriarchal clan system further disintegrated during the Warring States period, and the disadvantages of the system of officials and ministers were exposed completely, and the children of imperial clan did not rely on it. Merger and competition have made military and political affairs increasingly important and complicated, and the objective situation has developed to "a saint, a country without worries and a reputation without honor;" The loss of a sage is a national danger and a disgrace.

Earlier, both Confucius and Mohism talked about the truth of "Shang Xian's wisdom", but people didn't fully understand it, just went in one ear and out the other. Gradually, the confrontation between the seven countries has become more and more serious, which has produced a sense of urgency of "respecting sages, using sages to dominate, and losing sages will lead to death." As a result, many countries put the principle of recommending talents into practice by reforming and liquidating the official system, which fundamentally replaced personal recommendation, while Qin came from behind and did the most thoroughly. Le Yi replied to Yan: "The former king raised his hand above the guests and ministers, and he was not interested in his father and brother, but the envoy was Yaqing." Li Si's "Book of Exhortation and Expulsion" said: Qin IV won, "all with the help of customers." He asked, "Before this III, as for your son Zhao, who was the successor?" Said, "Nothing." He said, "I am not alone in Zhao, but who is the prince?" Yue: "The old woman doesn't smell it." Similar records reflect the far-reaching impact of this change. Since then, a large number of sages have entered the decision-making center, while nobles who have no ability and credit have been deprived of being "sluts", or even gradually reduced, and finally withdrew from the political arena.

According to "Tian Jiazhong History Book", he often hunts in the suburbs, boasting that he has ten "pearls with a diameter of inch" and can "take twelve times from the front and rear cars". Qi Weiwang replied: "I am Bao and Wang Yi", and then listed the important roles played by Tan Zi, Pan Zi, Qian Fu, Zhong You and others in the governance of Qi, saying: With them, "a thousand miles shine, so twelve times are special!" Liang Huiwang was ashamed and left without fear. This story shows that in the special international environment of the Warring States period, those sages who insisted on morality, knowledge and ability to govern Qiang Bing have been exalted and truly become cherished wealth. Some monarchs and rulers not only saw many examples of "the sage is the world, and one person is the world", which further enhanced their understanding of the importance of using the sage, but also identified the psychology that the sage needs to be respected most and summed up a set of methods to attract the sage. They know that "there are few wise people" and that "the speakers are tolerant but not extreme", while for the real "people with ways", "they must be polite and knowledgeable to exhaust their wisdom." As Guo Kun said to Yan Zhaowang: "If you refer to things, you will learn by yourself." Be anxious before profit, ask first before hey, and then who you are; People are often their own, so if they are their own; After several battles and ignoring instructions, the servants came. If you hit hard and swear, you are a slave! "[13] If" Yan Ceyi "is bossing around, and" he chooses what he wants ",he will lead a fool and his country will not die! Therefore, a wise monarch can "get rid of his imperial color" and treat the sages with humility. Or for the saints, "open the road to get rich first, and the hall is big and respectful"; Or with the sages, "sit on a curved mat, pass on food utensils and eat", "dress with them", do whatever you want to suit your wishes; Wen Xian's kind words, or "I'm too tired to rest", or "I didn't know when I was kneeling at the table" and "I was tired after talking for several days"; For the faults of sages, we often "don't say right and wrong", "people are not depressed unless they are themselves" and refuse to "regard the small evils of others as the great beauty of the dead". Among them, some monarchs can even be "polite even though they are arrogant", and they are so broad-minded that "they will never return" and their national security is not strong? As far as the atmosphere is concerned, some ministers in the Qing dynasty also paid attention to cultivating scholars, and there were actually "eating thousands of miles and doing nine things outside" to cultivate virtuous people. It can be said that the core of the competition among the seven princes in the Warring States period is the competition for talents.

It is precisely because of the tension of the coexistence of the seven countries that some wise men realized the significance of using sages, provided them with freedom of creation and choice, and formed political openness and academic contention through creation and mutual criticism. However, the good times did not last long, and this situation came to an abrupt end under the attack of Qin's "burning books to bury Confucianism" and "carrying books". As mentioned earlier, although the Han Dynasty was not peaceful, the unified regime could no longer tolerate the coexistence of various streams and Taoism, so the new way to replace the tyranny of the Qin Dynasty was to regard Confucianism characterized by Wang Ba as a statue. Since then, the son of heaven has become "as inflamed as the sun and as powerful as god", and the learning of various philosophers has been banned. "People who get lost will be entrusted to ditches." As far as the influence is concerned, "the county magistrate does not invite scholars, the county magistrate does not welcome teachers, and the ministers do not bow to guests or wink. Those who say strange things will be suspicious, and those who do strange things will be monarch. " The contention of a hundred schools of thought based on the free activities of sages has become a rare cultural phenomenon in the period from division to reunification.

(3) The contention of a hundred schools of thought is not only the result of the development of private ownership, but also related to the insufficient development of private ownership of land.

There is no doubt that the Western Zhou Dynasty was a private ownership society. But the existence of private ownership does not mean that it has matured. The most basic means of production in agricultural society is land, but the phenomenon of private ownership of land in the Western Zhou Dynasty was not obvious. This is the normal state in the early stage of class society.

According to the old rules of the tribal system, the land occupied by the clan should be owned by the clan. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, it became "all over the world, is it the land of kings?" On the surface, it seems that there is a king system; In fact, the king of Zhou only obtained the right to distribute the occupied land as the conqueror and the supreme representative of Zhou clan.

There are two forms of payment, namely, big bag and daily prize. There are two kinds of land that nobles get: one is directly occupied by the sealed person, which can be called family self-occupation; The other type is large in scope, with many towns and villages, which obviously belong to the residential areas of conquered peoples, such as the market and Yan State. In this way, by virtue of the right of family self-occupation, the blockaded people mastered the material basis of squeezing family members and slaves in the family, and also benefited from the exploitation of clans or family members scattered in the fief because they obtained the right to rule the vast conquered areas. Therefore, we can say that under the land system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, there has been a private ownership relationship in which producers have surplus labor for free. "Gong eats tribute, doctors eat the city, scholars eat the fields, and Shu Ren eats the grain". Gong, Qing, doctors and scholars are the level sharers of unpaid surplus labor. However, the incompleteness of this private ownership relationship is obvious. On the one hand, what aristocrats get in the packet and reward is only the possession, use right and income right of family land, which is far from the real ownership. As the incarnation of Zhou people, Zhou Wang can reclaim the land that has been granted and give it to others. On the other hand, like the Lord, the recipients cannot be treated in isolation. They belong to the family. They are the parents of every family. While receiving the land expropriation tribute, the transferee also shoulders the responsibility of collecting and taking care of the family. The so-called family self-occupation is collected and managed by him as a family representative. The real right to use does not belong to individuals, but to the whole family. "The princes have the country to treat their children, and the doctors have the country to treat their children." Descendants refer to the same family or clan of nobles. Due to the low level of productivity, it is necessary to improve labor productivity with the cooperation of many people. So even the main production activities are carried out collectively by families. People of a clan "work together when they leave, and others live at home", just like a production team. It's just that the heads of prominent families have been in the DPRK for a long time, so they have to "make an example for others", while the heads of ordinary families have been "defending the country and defending the country" as scholars, so they gradually got rid of labor and pushed the responsibility of "helping the peasants and supporting the elderly" to the domestic slaves composed of the lower class and their children.

From the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Spring and Autumn Period, consanguinity was constantly impacted in the fierce political struggle, and the concept of "kissing" gradually faded. However, if the old patriarch is killed or dies, he can be replaced by a new patriarch. Some families have declined, some families have risen and supplemented, and the basic pattern of family society has not fundamentally changed. The parents of aristocratic families live a life of "pampering", which is of course different from the lower class members dominated by parents. However, as children of the family and "immediate limbs" of the same body, they can still occupy and use the land by virtue of their natural connection with the same body, and be sheltered by their parents politically and economically. At the same time, the whole family should be responsible for the external behavior of parents, whether the family exists or not, whether the family dies or not. Every family has a strong inner reunion. Family members have only a master in their hearts, but no monarch. Society only pays attention to distinguishing people's "surnames and class status", and does not know what human nature is. Individuals are deeply submerged in the family.

In the Warring States period, the situation was completely different. Iron-clad farmers have the conditions to engage in self-employment, and the collective labor maintained by blood ties has suppressed the enthusiasm for production, so private farming is imperative. As a result, the evolution of land from family possession to individual possession came into being, but the patriarch used his power to occupy more land and good land, which made the children who lost family protection excluded, thus becoming the earliest "land without a cone" and being thrown into society. This is extremely unfavorable to the rich country Qiang Bing policy pursued by the seven countries. In order to consolidate the rule and foreign war, the land grant system with administrative intervention in the economy as the main content has been put on the agenda. Land reclamation, land reclamation, land reclamation and land grant in Zhonghe, Sichuan Province all refer to land grant by the state, while the so-called "border development", "new construction" and "border trimming" are based on the acreage of each area, breaking family restrictions and delineating land boundaries for individual producers who undertake tribute. However, the land grant system only accelerates the process of land privatization and does not directly lead to individual private ownership. After receiving the fields, the farmers in the Warring States period will retire from the fields at a certain time. Since there is still land grant, the government should always "examine the land boundary" and check the land boundary to prevent "illegal immigrants", so as to achieve "a fixed number of people, regardless of the size of men and women" and "home to land", and in some places, "more than three years old" to make the land received by every household even. Workers need to "abandon their fields" if they want to leave their hometown, and the seller has only a small homestead.

The popularization of decentralized labor and the development of industry and commerce not only promoted the maturity of private ownership, but also caused the complete disintegration of families. The Guanpian, which reflects the historical facts of the Warring States Period, asks, "What's the difference between a country and its abandoned children?" He also asked Zongzi, "Who is the geometer who followed Kundi out of poverty?" It shows that with the destruction of clan system, the relationship between big and small clans has been reversed, and the remaining sons of small clans may wander around because of poverty, or they may be independent from obscurity by virtue of wealth or ability. On the other hand, the land grant system means that the privatization of land has not been completed, people lack a solid combination with the most basic means of production, and the concept of settling on land can not be found in historical records. Attracted by the policies of attracting people and attracting talents from other countries, you can receive land here, land there and even get a lot of land rewards. Therefore, the Warring States people actually became free men without blood shackles and real estate fetters. It is in this context that the class names of ethnic groups are gradually ignored, the discussion about human nature is intensified, and various new theories reflecting personal political ideas emerge one after another, and even a thinker like Zhuang Zhou, who regards spiritual liberation above all else and flaunts personality extremely, has appeared. Su Qin said: "You make me feel guilty about Tian Guo. How can I have an impression on the six countries?" It can be seen that with fixed real estate, the situation will be very different. Not only may it erode the fighting spirit of making contributions, but I am afraid that even the state of mind of "walking in the light, blending with the desert, being natural and not allowing privacy" will be destroyed.

From Qin dynasty to Han dynasty, the land grant system was gradually abandoned and eventually disintegrated. [23] With the privatization and commercialization of land, the situation of "rich people connecting buildings" soon appeared, and scholars began to move towards the road of landlords. Using various bans and strict household registration management, the government rewarded filial piety while "driving away farmers belonging to the people" and induced people to "work hard" in an attempt to stabilize civil society by rebuilding blood organizations. Emperor Han and Yuan said in an imperial edict: "It is the nature to benefit the people to settle in their native land;" The flesh and blood are connected, and people want what they want "[16]" Yuan Di Ji "shows that by this time, most people were trapped by the two big nets of real estate and patriarchal clan system and could not move. The government publicly cracked down on rangers and lobbied for demonstrations, and scholars lost their ambition to break the net and "benefit others." It is a matter of course that a hundred schools of thought characterized by free writing, free speech, free criticism and free flow have disappeared. As a result, China's ancient knowledge activities suddenly lost the original spirit of the Warring States period, and changed from lively to dull and stagnant, which is not only related to the strengthening and unification of the autocratic system, but also has profound economic reasons. Some people say that during the Warring States period, "it is possible to develop in other directions than autocracy" [24], which is completely unrealistic, because the stage of social development determined by economic forces is often insurmountable.

In short, it is impossible for a hundred schools of thought to contend before or after the Warring States Period. The freedom of a hundred schools of thought contending is the freedom in the cracks of history.