The Historical Evolution of zadar

Today's zadar has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Evidence shows that there were human activities here as early as the late Stone Age, and as early as the Neolithic Age, a large number of people came to settle here. Before the Illyrians, the residents here were a group of ancient Mediterranean residents with prehistoric Indo-European cultural background, who were assimilated by Indo-European ethnic groups who migrated to Europe from 4000 BC to 2000 BC. And formed a new nation-Libl Nyan people, zadar is the settlement of Libl Nyan people, founded in the 9th century BC. At first, the city was built on a small stone island, and the seawall of the old city was connected with the mainland through a narrow isthmus. This geographical feature has also created a natural harbor in the northern part of the Strait.

Libl people were famous for sailing and doing business in the ancient world, but later they were also notorious for piracy. By the 7th century BC, zadar had become an important center for their trade with Phoenicians, Etruscans, ancient Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples. At that time, the population of the city was estimated to have reached 2000. From the 9th century BC to the 6th century BC, there has always been a cultural unity that speaks Attica dialect in ancient Greece. With Libl as the universal symbol, Libl Nyans' concept of navigation supremacy has ruled this area politically and economically for centuries. Due to the geographical location of the city, zadar has developed into the main base of the fleet, which is the embodiment of Libl's annual sea power and occupies the primary position in the consortium of Libl 14 cities. In 384 BC, Iadasinoi, a resident of zadar, was mentioned. At that time, as the leader of the alliance of the indigenous people of Heval Island and the alliance along the East Adriatic Sea, he fought against the ancient Greek colonists. A fleet of 300 ships and 65,438+00,000 soldiers sailed out of zadar and besieged the territory of the Greek colony fallows (now Croatian StaRigler) on Chival Island. However, Dionysus's Syracuse fleet received the distress message and attacked the besieged fleet. The victory of the Greeks at sea made their colonies in the southern Adriatic relatively safe. Ancient relics show that before being conquered by the Romans, the main center of Nyan territorial unit of Libl was the city in the last few centuries BC. In the 2nd century BC, zadar occupied more than 600 square kilometers.

In the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Romans began to invade this area gradually. Although they became the first enemy of the Romans in the Adriatic Sea, the people of Libl and Illyria fought a war with the Romans for more than 230 years to ensure their interests in navigation and maritime trade. In 59 BC, Julius Caesar designated Illyria as a province of the Roman Empire, and Italia of Liber became a city under the province.

In 49 BC, the navy of Las Bourny was involved in the Roman Civil War between Julius Caesar and Pompeii, partly because of the intervention of supporters from both sides in Nia, Libl. Caesar was supported by residents of central cities such as Virginia and Libl, such as Yadel (zadar), Enona (now Ningzhen, Croatia) and Kulikum (now Kerk Island, Croatia). Ssa (today's lissa in Croatia) and the rest of Libl supported Pompeii. In 49 BC, the "zadar Fleet" equipped by some cities in Libl and supported by some Roman ships was defeated by the "Libl Navy" supported by Pompeii. The civil war lasted until the end of 48 BC. In return for his support, Caesar gave them the status of Roman colony, and the city was awarded the title of colonia Iulia Iader. This happened centuries after the city was founded, when the Romans (mostly veterans of the Roman legion) immigrated.

The Roman province of Illyria was formally established not earlier than the military campaign launched by Octavian (Augustus) in Illyria and Libl in 33 BC. At this time, the people of Libl finally lost their naval independence, and their warships and sailors were incorporated into the Roman navy.

From the early days of Roman rule, zadar gained the status of a Roman city and developed into one of the most prosperous ports on the east coast of Adriatic Sea. This scene lasted for hundreds of years. The city is organized according to the typical Roman street system, consisting of a rectangular street layout, a square, a public bathroom, a sewer and a water supply system from Lake Flana, in which the aqueduct of the water supply system is 40 kilometers long. In Dalmatia under Roman rule, the city did not occupy a very important position, although archaeological discoveries tell us that the economy and culture of the city have increased significantly.

The new religion Christianity did not bypass the province of Dalmatia in Rome. By the end of the 3rd century, zadar had its own bishop, and the establishment of Christian community in the city began to appear. A new religious center has been built in the north of the city square, along with a church, a baptismal pool and other religious facilities. According to statistics, in the 4th century, the city may have about 1 10,000 residents, including people from islands and inland areas near the city. The ethnic composition is a mixture of local Libl people and Roman immigrants.

In the era of ethnic migration and barbarian invasion, zadar experienced a period of depression. In 44 1 and 447, Dalmatia was twice ravaged by tarquin of Attila. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Dalmatia became a part of the Eastern Gothic Kingdom in 48 1 year. At that time, the territory of the Eastern Gothic Kingdom included Italy, and the northern provinces of the former Roman Empire, Illyria, Pannonia and Noriku, were also in its territory.

In the 5th century, zadar under the rule of ostrogoths became poor and shabby, and many buildings in the city were in ruins because of advanced technology. In the 6th century, the city also suffered an earthquake, which destroyed the entire magnificent Roman buildings in the city, and some of these buildings later became building materials. The earthquake also led to the decrease of urban population and the change of urban population composition. Since then, inland residents have gradually moved here. However, the rule of the Goths did not leave a deep trace in the daily life of the provincial residents. The Goths kept the municipal institutions in working condition since Roman times. In the past few years, the religious life in Dalmatia has even been strengthened, and the demand for an additional parish has become increasingly prominent.

In 536, Justinian I, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, began a campaign to reoccupy the territory originally belonging to the Western Roman Empire. In 553, zadar was occupied by the Eastern Roman Empire. In 568, Dalmatia was invaded and destroyed by awar. Although the city is always filled with smog due to the repeated attacks by awar and Slavic tribes, zadar is the only city that survived the attacks because of its inland plain reserve. In the 1940s, Salona, the capital of Dalmatia, was occupied and destroyed, so zadar became the new capital of Dalmatia province of the Eastern Roman Empire. However, the territory of Dalmatia was reduced, and some cities, coastal land and nearby islands no longer belonged to Dalmatia. In Dalmatia of the Eastern Roman Empire, zadar has priority jurisdiction, so zadar enjoys the status of a central city along the East Adriatic Sea. During this period, the city began to rebuild.

At the beginning of the 9th century, donatus, Archbishop of zadar, and Paul, Duke of the city, mediated the dispute between the Holy Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire under Pippin's rule. The Franks occupied zadar for a short time, but the signing of the Treaty of Aachen in 8 12 decided that the city would return to the Eastern Roman Empire.

In the first century of the Middle Ages, zadar's economy always revolved around ocean, fishery and maritime trade. Zadar has become the most important city between Castellana Bay and Key Vanel Islands because of saving the ancient system, adjusting municipal institutions and new strategic position. Dalmatia in the Eastern Roman Empire is not only a territorial unity, but also a city alliance headed by zadar. A great degree of urban autonomy makes Dalmatia develop rapidly as a free city-state. Because attention was forced to turn to the sea, the residents of zadar focused on shipping, and the city also had maritime power comparable to that of Venice and China. The languages spoken by zadar residents are all Dalmatian, but Croatian began to spread in this area in the 7th century, and dominated the inland and islands at the end of the 9th century.

After the peaceful period from the last decades of the 9th century to the middle of the10th century, the cities along the Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea made remarkable progress, especially when the Adriatic Sea was favorable for navigation and the Arab Empire was divided. Although the adjustment of relations with Croats enabled zadar businessmen to trade with their rich inland agricultural areas, where the Kingdom of Croatia was formed, trade and political relations began to develop with zadar. /kloc-In the 20th century, the influx of Croatian immigrants into zadar became very common and spread all over the city. Croats appear in important positions such as monks, judges and bishops. In 925, Duke Tomislav of Dalmatia, Croatia, joined Dalmatia and Pannonia to establish the Kingdom of Croatia, and he was also granted the status of protector of Dalmatia by the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. So politically, he combined their inland with the cities of Dalmatia.

During the development of medieval zadar, due to its strategic position in the center of the East Adriatic coast, the city became a threat to Venetian ambitions.

1998, zadar sought the protection of pirates from the Republic of Venice in Retva, and the Venetians quickly seized the opportunity. 1998, after defeating the pirates, a fleet led by Pietro II Horche Rowe, the governor of Venice and China, landed on Korchula and Rastovo Island. The Dalmatians were surprised to find the arrival of the Venice fleet, with little resistance. Except for Rogier who fought bloody battles with the Venetians and finally surrendered to Venice, other Dalmatian cities were easily occupied by the Venetians, but ragusa was forced to pay tribute to avoid being occupied by the Venetians, and what zadar paid tribute to the Croatian king in the early days turned to pay tribute to Venice for several years.

Zadar residents began to seek the complete independence of zadar. From the165438+1930s, the city officially became a dependency of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the leader of the independence movement was the arrogant Madi family of zadar aristocrats. After negotiations with the Eastern Roman Empire, King Perthar Kresimir IV of Croatia formally incorporated zadar into the territory of Croatia on 1069. Later 1089, after the death of King Dmitar Zvonimir, the dynasty changed. 1 105, zadar accepted the rule of the first croatian-Hungarian king, kalman.

At the same time, Venice developed into a real trading power in the Adriatic Sea and began to attack zadar, from11to 1 15438 and 165438+.

Especially in 1202, when Venetian Governor Enrico Dandolo went to Palestine for the fourth Crusade, he used the Crusaders to besiege zadar, which caused great damage to the city. The Crusaders turned to the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt, but they didn't bring enough money, so Venice used them to besiege zadar. When the city was conquered, it was thoroughly searched, destroyed and robbed. Croatian and Hungarian King Emeric accused the Crusaders of their crimes, because the argument was that pagans might have infiltrated the Crusaders and God's troops and attacked a Christian city. Even so, zadar was conquered and suffered great losses. The urban population fled to the surrounding areas, Pope Innocent III excommunicated Venice, and the Crusaders were discredited for their participation in the siege of zadar.

Two years later, in 1204, under the leadership of the Croatian aristocrat Domar from Benic, most of the refugees returned and liberated the city from the remnants of the Crusaders. 1204, Domar became the Lord of zadar, but the Venetian authorities redrafted the peace agreement the following year, which was very harsh on zadar residents. The only income of zadar City Council is one-third of the city port tax, which may not even be enough to maintain the necessary expenses of the city Council.

However, all this has not destroyed the spirit of the city. In any case, zadar's commerce was hit by the lack of autonomy under Venetian rule. During the more feudal Croatian-Hungarian rule the kingdom period, cities enjoyed considerable autonomy. A series of subsequent uprisings (1242–1243, 1320s,1345–1346) finally brought zadar back to zadar in 1358. After Ludwig I's death, zadar was ruled by King Sigmund, followed by ladislaus Anjou. Under his rule, the Croatian-Hungarian kingdom was involved in a bloody civil war. 1409, Venice * * * saw that Radislavs would be defeated. Although its military strength was not as good as that of that year, Venice was eager to seize this opportunity and offered Radislavs the right to buy his Dalmatia at a price of only 100000 Duckett. Knowing that he had lost the region, Lardius accepted the terms of Venice, and zadar was sold to the Venetians at a low price.

According to a large number of records, the population of medieval zadar was mainly composed of Croats, and Croatian was also used in worship. This can be seen from the description of Cardinal Bouzon, who went to Venice with Pope Alexander III in 1 17 1 year. When the Pope's ship arrived in zadar Harbor, residents sang hymns and requiems in Croatian to welcome the arrival of the Pope. Despite the mystery of siege and destruction, the period from 1 1 century to14th century was still the golden age of zadar. Through its political and trade progress and skilled sailors, zadar has played an extremely important role in the cities on the east coast of Adriatic Sea. One of the best examples of zadar's cultural prosperity is the establishment of zadar University at that time, which was established at the proposal of Domingo Association in 1396 and is the oldest university in Croatia today.

After Ludwig I's death, zadar was ruled by Sigmund in Luxemburg and La Dillaus in Naples. The latter, knowing that they had lost their influence in Dalmatia, sold the power of zadar and his dynasty in Dalmatia to Venice on July 3 1409 at the price of 100000 Duckett. Venice took control of zadar without a single soldier, but they had to face it. Finally, these nobles were persecuted and their property was confiscated. Zadar was still the administrative center of Dalmatia, but at this time it was already under the rule of Venetians, and their power had extended to the whole Dalmatia at that time, except ragusa and the Republic. The Venetians controlled the political and economic autonomy of zadar, but in any case, zadar was a prosperous city at that time. At that time, Giorgio da Sebenico, one of the most famous artists in the Renaissance, was born in zadar, and zadar is famous for its sculptures of Benic Cathedral. Later, other famous artists from zadar, such as Lucian and Franno Fran Jia Ning, became famous in Italy for their sculptures and architectural works.

/kloc-from the 6th century to the 7th century, zadar was attacked by the Ottoman Turkish Empire. /kloc-At the beginning of the 6th century, the Ottoman Turkish Empire occupied the mainland of zadar, and the city has been under the attack of Turkish artillery. Due to the threat of Turks, castles and city walls under the new system began to be built. These defense systems have changed the appearance and style of the city. In order to provide land for the pentagonal tower to be built, many houses and churches are demolished, as are the whole suburbs (such as Walaas in San Martin). After 40 years of construction, zadar has become the largest defensive city in Dalmatia, defending the city through a series of castles, redoubts and moats filled with seawater. Public reservoirs in the city provide domestic water for the city. After the thorough transformation of zadar, many new urban buildings have been built, such as the city hotel and police station in Gospodski Square and some military camps, and some large brand-new palaces have also been built.

Compared with the danger and the siege and destruction of Ottoman Turkish army, the city protected by the city wall began to experience cultural evolution. In the16th century and17th century, the works of Croatian writers and poets increased significantly (Jerolim Vidoli, Perthar Zalani, Bournay Carnaru Tich, Juraj Barakovich and Shimei Budini). One of the most famous artists is Andre Medulic (15101515–1563). When he was in Venice, his signature was Andrea Schiavone.

During the period when Turks constantly threatened cities, the development of population was stagnant, just like the stagnation of economy. 16th century and17th century, a large-scale plague epidemic broke out in some cities. Under the threat of Turkish military force 150 years, zadar has not only lost its population, but also lost a lot of material wealth. Venice sent new immigrants to the city and made them accept the leadership of Archbishop Vico Zmajevic. These Christian refugees from Albania settled in this city and formed a new suburb. Despite the lack of funds, the Nobile Theatre was built in 1783 and has been in operation for more than 100 years.

With the signing of the Campo-Formio Treaty, after the death of the Venetian Republic in 1797, zadar was ruled by the Austrian Empire and reunited with the rest of Croatia. From 1806, the city was briefly occupied by rule the kingdom, the puppet of the First French Empire, until 1809, when zadar was incorporated into Illyria province of the First French Empire. By 18 13, all the land in Dalmatia was reoccupied by the Austrian Empire and incorporated into the territory of the Austrian Empire. During this period, zadar remained the capital of Dalmatia.

During the reign of Napoleon, the first Dalmatian newspaper, Royal Dalmatian (Croatian: Kraglski Dalmatin-Illegio Dalmata), was printed and distributed in zadar.

After 18 15, Dalmatia (including Dubrovnik) officially became the territory of the Austrian Empire. After 1848, Italian and Slavic nationalism began to appear in this area, and the city was divided into Croatia and Italy. Both sides have established their own political parties, which is also the root of the conflict between the two sides. During this period, both sides claimed to be the main body of the city. However, during this period, the Slavic population in Dalmatia grew significantly faster than that in Italy, and it also cultivated a completely different national spirit.

19 18, the political activities in zadar were more intense than usual, and the development of the independence movement was under way. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, ethnic conflicts broke out in this city. 19 165438+20081October 4th, with an Italian army entering and occupying the city, the Italians gradually took control of the city. 19201165438+1kloc-0/2 signed the Raparo treaty, which allocated zadar and other local lands to Italy. The total area of zadar enclave is 104 square kilometers, including zadar, Boccagna and. Rastovo Island and Pala Groussat Island (with an area of 53 square kilometers and 65,438+0,765,438+00 residents). These territories constitute a province of Italy.

194 1 On April 6, 2008, Nazi Germany invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia with limited assistance from Italy. Zadar assembled an army of 9,000 men and arrived in Benic and Split on April 6th, 15, where the resistance was negligible. Two days later, the defenders surrendered and the local residents had evacuated to ancona and Pula. They also occupied Mostar and Dubrovnik and joined forces from Italy-occupied Albania. On the same day, the government of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia surrendered under the powerful offensive of the Nazi German Defence Forces. A few weeks later, benito mussolini demanded that the newly established Nazi puppet regime, the so-called Croatian independent state, hand over almost all of Dalmatia (including Split) to Italy according to the Treaty of Rome. The city later became the center of the new Italian territorial entity, known as the Governor's District of Dalmatia, which included the provinces of zadar, Split and Cotto. Generally speaking, this treaty is only recognized by the Axis countries, so it is considered invalid by the international community. But in fact, both the locals and Dalmatia are under Italian occupation. Under the rule of Italian fascism, Slavs were forced to accept their assimilation policy, which caused great dissatisfaction among the Yugoslav people. Yugoslav guerrillas especially took root here. Italians used concentration camps (mainly in Bula Island and nars) to suppress the resistance movement led by guerrillas, and adopted centralized execution, hostage-taking, revenge, imprisonment, burning houses and villages.

1943 On July 25th, Mussolini was driven out of the power center and arrested. 1943 On September 3rd, the government of Petro Badoglio signed an armistice agreement with the allied forces. On September 8, the agreement was made public and the Italian army collapsed. However, four days later, on September 12, German special forces raided and rescued Mussolini in the Great Sasso Mountain. In northern Italy, the German puppet Italian Social Republic was established. The independent state of Croatia later claimed that the Treaty of Rome was invalid and occupied Dalmatia with the support of Germany. The Germans first entered zadar in September 10, and the German 1 14 Hunter Division occupied the city. This also makes the liberation of the city by guerrillas only temporary. In Benic and Split, some Italian fascist government officials were killed by local angry citizens. The city did not join independent Croatia because zadar accepted the terms of the Treaty of Rome. However, Ante PaVilic, the leader of the independent state of Croatia, designated zadar as the capital of West Laga-Rafni Kotar County, while the administrative officials of the independent state of Croatia were forbidden to enter the city, and zadar was still under the management of Italian society and local administrative agencies of the country. Therefore, zadar was bombed by the allied air force, causing a large number of civilian casualties, many people were killed in the carpet bombing, many landmark buildings, century-old buildings and artworks in the city were also destroyed, and a large number of civilians fled the city.

1944, 10 at the end of the year, the Germans and a large number of urban civilians abandoned the city and fled. 1944, 10, 3 1, Yugoslav guerrillas occupied zadar. At that time, zadar was still a part of Mussolini's Italian society. At the beginning of World War II, zadar had 24 aircraft. With the occupation of zadar by Yugoslav guerrillas, some Italians were killed by public security groups and guerrillas. Nominally, zadar belonged to Italian territory before1February 1947 10. On this day, with the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty, zadar became a part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the city was successfully recovered and became an important regional central city again.

During the period of the former Yugoslavia, zadar experienced a large-scale reconstruction and recovery, which was followed by a substantial increase in population and economic strength. The federal government invested in the construction of a large number of public facilities, including the Adriatic Expressway (Croatian: Jadranska magistrala), connecting the rest of the country with this region. In addition to the local infrastructure, the Federal Government of Yugoslavia started the industrialization of the city, and all the factories in the city were built or restored and modernized during the period of the former Yugoslavia. In 1970s, zadar especially enjoyed the high living standard brought to Dalmatia by the development of international tourism.

However, during this period, the city lost its position as the regional capital, and Split surpassed zadar in population and economic strength, which was also the most prosperous era of cities in the 20th century, which was completed in the post-war and New Yugoslavia era.

Generally speaking, by the 1990s, zadar not only had been rebuilt after World War II, but also showed its strength as a modern regional industrial center city, including a large number of tourists, GDP and employment rate. At that time, these excellent standards could not be compared with today. However, after Tito's death, Yugoslavia quickly fell into turmoil.

In the early 1990s, the bitter Yugoslav civil war broke out, and zadar became a part of the new country. During this period, the city's economy was greatly affected, not only because of the war, but also because of the shadow of the economic crisis and the controversial privatization process, which made most once prosperous enterprises begin to decline.

During the period of 1990, Serb residents living in Krajina, Croatia (located in the interior of Dalmatia) blocked the road, effectively preventing Croatia from exercising sovereignty over Dalmatia. Some non-Serb residents were expelled from this area, and the killing of several Croatian policemen led to anti-Serb riots in Dalmatia in May.

After Croatia declared its independence, the army of Serbian Krajina and the Yugoslav People's Army assembled in the city, and zadar was shelled in the 9 1 operation (in Croatian: Operacija Obala-9 1) that tried to control the whole coast of northern Dalmatia. Like other Croatian towns in this region, zadar has been shelled sporadically in recent years, which led to some towns belonging to UNESCO. Some towns and villages near zadar have also been attacked, the most barbaric of which is the Shka Bourny Lass massacre (Croatian: Masakr u? Kabrnji) killed 86 residents.

For more than a year, the contact between zadar and Zagreb has been very difficult. The only way to connect northern and southern Croatia is through Pug Island. The siege of zadar lasted from 199 1 to 1993 1. Only then did the Croatian Army stabilize the situation in zadar and its surrounding areas, and re-established the contact between this area and other parts of Croatia through the action of Nika in Masler. The attack on zadar continued until 1995, when the Croatian army stormed and the civil war in the former Yugoslavia ended completely.

Due to the existence of mines, some villages in the northeast of zadar suburb along Highway 8 have been identified as dangerous areas.