The Spread of Frontier Religion in Western China during Qin and Han Dynasties

During the Qin and Han dynasties, the ethnic groups living in the west were mainly border and Qiang. Although the literature refers to Di and Qiang as Qiang, the relationship between them is complicated: either Di and Qiang are of the same origin, and Di comes from Qiang; Or that the customs of Di and Qiang are different. As far as literature is concerned, the words "edge" and "strong" are not strictly used. It is called "Bian" here and "Qiang" there, such as Baimabian and Baimaqiang, such as Wudubian and Wuduqiang, and so on. Judging from the relevant records and the five lakes, both Di and Qiang are among the "five lakes" and have established political power. Therefore, even if they are homologous, Castanopsis fissa and Qiang developed in different streams and should belong to different populations. Except for "Baimabian", there is no special record about frontier people in the official history of Han Dynasty, and it is only briefly mentioned when describing the history of "Southwest Yi" or Qiang people. The land of Wudu, where Baimabian lives, is dangerous. "There are Martin, famous horses, famous cows, famous sheep, famous lacquer and famous honey. People are brave in taking risks, greedy for goods and dying for profit (The Biography of Nan Man in the Later Han Dynasty). Some documents after Wei and Jin Dynasties, such as Pei Songzhi's The Story of the Fish and the Biography of Wei Lu Xi Rong, simply mentioned the customs of Jian 'an people: Jian 'an people are good at weaving, farming, knitting, marrying and having similarities with Qiang people. & gt& gt Since the Shang Dynasty, the Qiang people have always appeared in ancient books, Oracle Bone Inscriptions and inscriptions on bronze, and the Biography of Western Qiang in the later Han Dynasty is the earliest and most complete document to record its history, so scholars have constructed a history of the Qiang people that is almost parallel to the history of China. In recent twenty or thirty years, Wang Mingke, a scholar, took the opportunity of studying the history of the Qiang nationality as an opportunity to challenge the "familiar" history of the Qiang nationality, which not only strongly impacted the existing "mode" of writing ethnic history, but also gave us an opportunity to reflect on the ethnic problems in the border areas of Qin and Han Dynasties. This section focuses on the history of Qiang people and mentions Wang Mingke's "Marginalism". & gt& gt Usually, the definition of "nation" in historians is mainly based on the following assumptions: a nation is a group of people with the same blood, language and cultural characteristics. On the premise of this assumption, the study of national history is carried out: taking the internal objective characteristics of people who constitute this "nation", such as physique, language and culture, as the research object, tracing back the spatial and temporal distribution of people with the same or similar objective characteristics; Through this tracing, we can understand the origin of a nation and its relationship with other nations, and form a history of a nation at such a time depth. This basic assumption and related research methods are strongly questioned from theory to practice today. Judging from the current situation of all ethnic groups in the world, the same physical, linguistic and cultural characteristics are not necessary factors for a nation or country. For example, in terms of language, not all Qiang people speak Qiang language, and not all Qiang people (or are willing to) speak Qiang language. This phenomenon may be explained by some Qiang people forgetting "Qiang language". In fact, there is no "Qiang language" that Qiang people can communicate with each other, and it is also difficult for Qiang people who speak different dialects and dialects to communicate. > > When the old definition of "nation" has various problems or limitations, ethnic studies in contemporary social anthropology have become the object of concern, and ethnic groups and ethnic boundaries have emerged under subjective identification: "ethnic group" is a category recognized by its own constituent elements, and the most important thing that causes ethnic groups is its "boundary", not its "connotation" including language, culture and lineage. How to generate ethnic identity under subjective identity? In this respect, there are differences between "fundamentalists" and "instrumentalists": the former emphasizes that ethnic identity mainly comes from basic emotional connections; The latter basically regards ethnic groups as a political, social or economic phenomenon, and explains the formation, maintenance and changes of ethnic groups by the competition and distribution of political and economic resources. No matter objectivism and subjectivism, or foundationalism and instrumentalism, they are not completely opposite and incompatible. In fact, each has its own merits: objectivism points out the observable connotation of ethnic groups, while subjectivism describes ethnic boundaries; The basic theory explains the connection and inheritance between molecules within the ethnic group, while the tool theory emphasizes the maintenance and change of ethnic identity. & gt& gt Some people don't stick to any of the above theories and try to establish a new comprehensive theory. This is the case with Wang Mingke's Marginal Study of National History and his Marginalism. In the author's view, "ethnic group" is regarded as the subjective identification category of a group of people, rather than the synthesis of a particular language, culture and physical characteristics. People's subjective identity (ethnic range) is accomplished by defining and maintaining ethnic boundaries, which are multiple, changeable and available. In the multi-level national identity, nationality is the most common and extensive "ethnic group". The formation of this subjective ethnic group or national category is formed under the guidance and promotion of the intellectual elite with knowledge and power in a specific political and economic environment. People use the same appellation as * * *, the history of national origin and some physical, linguistic, religious or cultural features to emphasize internal unity and order, and set national boundaries to exclude others. With the change of internal and external political and economic environment, the relationship between resource allocation and sharing has also changed, thus causing changes in the identity of individuals or the whole ethnic group or country. & gt& gt Based on this understanding of national essence, the author believes that the focus of national history research will naturally shift from national connotation to national edge. In ethnic relations, once the edge of the ethnic group is defined by some subjective category, people within the ethnic group often don't emphasize their own cultural connotation, while at the edge of the ethnic group, they emphasize ethnic characteristics, and the edge becomes the best position to observe and understand ethnic phenomena. In archaeology, marginal research focuses on "ecological archaeology" rather than "object typology" under the background of the emergence or change of national boundaries caused by resource competition; In terms of historical documents, this paper regards documents as a kind of "social memory" and analyzes the differences and changes between "my group" and "other group". Based on the "fringe theory" and research methods, the author studies the formation and expansion of China ethnic fringe, and holds that the westward migration of Qiang people's ideas is a typical example of the expansion of China ethnic fringe, and the Han Dynasty is the ecological limit of the existence of China ethnic fringe in China. Settlement and migration, agriculture and animal husbandry have gradually become an important basis for distinguishing "my race" from "other races". & gt& gt The westward movement of the concept of Qiang people from Shang to Han is the key to Wang Mingke's "marginal research". Different from the traditional academic point of view, Wang Mingke believes that the Qiang nationality is not a "nation" living in the western border of China for generations, that is, the Qiang nationality is not a national entity migrating in historical time and space, but a "concept" of western aliens existing in the hearts of China people for generations. "Qiang", as a title for people, was first seen in Oracle Bone Inscriptions (about13rd century BC). At this time, "Qiang" was the appellation of foreigners by businessmen, not a group, and it was active in western Henan, southwestern Shanxi and eastern Shaanxi. 1 1 Centuries ago, Zhou people rose in the Weishui River Basin, uniting the forces of various tribes in the western regions to cooperate with merchants. Around this time, Zhou people and their allies gradually became orientalist and inherited the cultural traditions of many businessmen. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, there was no foreign tribe called Qiang, and the western tribe, which was less influenced by Shang and Zhou culture, was called Rong by Zhou people at this time, about in Baoji area of Shaanxi and its western and northern parts. At that time, most of the "Rong people" east of Longshan were conquered by Qin people. At this time, the "Huaxia identity" of the eastern countries gradually formed, and compared with "Huaxia", it was dominated by "Rongdi" aliens. With the sinicization of the Qin people, the "Rongdi" under its rule gradually became a part of China, and the edge of ethnic groups in western China continued to drift westward. & gt& gt At the end of the Warring States Period, the word "frontier strength" appeared in the works of some thinkers at that time, such as Lv Chunqiu and Xunzi. Or appear in works that record some fictional and mythical geography, people and products, such as Shan Hai Jing. All refer to aliens in western rumors. However, in Guoyu, Zuo Zhuan, Warring States Policy and other historical documents that record ancient and modern personnel, there is no record of frontier strength. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, political unification brought about the expansion of territory and national identity. In the west, China's political control, Chinese agriculture and cultural values have all moved westward to places suitable for farming. At the same time, due to the deepening understanding of westerners, "Rong" is no longer applicable to describe all non-China westerners. In this context, the original vague and mythical concept of "frontier strength" of foreign nationalities in the western regions was divided into two ethnic groups: He and Qiang, and was used by people in Qin and Han Dynasties to refer to the two ethnic groups in the western regions of Longxi. & gt& gt During the Qin and early Han Dynasties, Longxi area was also called "Zhong Qiang". From the early years of the Western Han Dynasty to the Eastern Han Dynasty, the concepts of the western alien "Qiang people" and the place name "Qiang Zhong" in China people's minds drifted westward. At the beginning of Han Dynasty, "Zhong Qiang" was located near Longxi and Lintao, that is, between Taohe River and Bailong River. As a result, the concept of alien in different places related to Qiang people extends and expands in three directions. Along the Northwest Road, China's influence reached the Hexi Corridor in Gansu during the period of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, and the geographical concept of "Zhong Qiang" also moved to the northwest, referring to this new western frontier. At this time, between Jiuquan and Zhangye, there were places such as "Qiang Shui Gu" and "Qiang Gu", and the local natives were also called "Qiang people". In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the concept of "Qiang people" drifted northwest to Tianshan South Road. All the way to the west, during the reign of Zhao Xuan (86-49 BC), * * * forces entered Hehuang (Huangshui Valley in the upper reaches of the Yellow River and its tributaries), so the concept of "Qiang" was extended to Hehuang area. In the Han Dynasty, China actively stationed troops and immigrated in Huangshui River Basin, which caused a fierce conflict between Hehuang indigenous people and * * * *. In the official history, the "Qiang people" here. Along the Southwest Road, Qin people and China people in the early Western Han Dynasty developed from Longxi and Lintao to the southwest, so the names "Gangbian Road", "Bianbian Road" and "Dianbian Road" were used by Huaxia as new frontiers in southern Gansu and northern Sichuan, and some people here were also called because of their association with frontier strength. During the Western Han Dynasty, there were no regions and nationalities named Qiang in the southwest except Wudu County in the geography of Hanshu. For example, according to Records of the Historian and Hanshu, at that time, the most common appellation of * * to southwest aborigines was "Yi", and people in Wudu, Wenxian and Songpan in Longnan were called "Di". The Baima Qiang and Yak Qiang mentioned in the Biography of Western Qiang in the later Han Dynasty, as well as the Qiang and Longqiao outside Shu County, are all the concepts of "Qiang people" that appeared later. * * * After long-term contact with the Yi people in southwest China, he called "Qiang" an indigenous people who knew little about it in the west. & gt& gt The social structure of the Qiang people is loose. "Don't make this, don't learn from each other. If you are strong, you will be classified as a chief. If you are weak, you will depend on others. Copying violence is powerful. " (Biography of Western Qiang in the Later Han Dynasty) The Qiang people live in impermanence, making a living from animal husbandry and concurrently engaging in agriculture; Strong and brave by nature, good at fighting in the valley, taking death as luck and death as evil; Qiang tribes have their own leaders, leaders of different levels, and different titles such as Dahao, Zhonghao and Xiaohao. & gt& gt Hehuang Qiang people became the typical "Qiang" in the mind of * * * because there were several bloody battles between Han * * and Hehuang Qiang, and the records in the Biography of Western Qiang in the later Han Dynasty strengthened the image of Hehuang Qiang. At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, the Qiang people surrendered to the Huns; During the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Xiongnu was used to build a fortress in Yongdeng County, Gansu Province, and four counties in Hexi were set up to isolate the traffic between Qiang people and Xiongnu. Qiang people fought against Xiongnu, and more than 100,000 troops attacked Jusai and Waihan (now Linxia, Gansu). Han Pai and other generals conquered Qiang people and made them accept the command of a captain. A Qiang captain is responsible for handling internal disputes among Qiang people, and regularly follows the Qiang people's ministries to ask about their sufferings every year. Some Qiang people were forced to move westward, leaving Huangzhong (now near Xining, Qinghai) for Xihai (now northwest of Haiyan, Qinghai) and Yanchi (now southeast of Gangcha, Qinghai). "Han and Sui Dynasties were blocked by mountains, and Hexi was empty, so it was realistic to make a little migration" (Biography of Western Qiang in the Later Han Dynasty). When Zhao was in office, Jincheng County (northwest of Yongjing, Gansu) was established to strengthen the control of Qiang people. When Xuan Di proclaimed himself emperor, Zero Qiang first crossed Huangshui animal husbandry, and the counties established by Han Dynasty could not be banned. & gt& gt In the third year of Yuankang (the first 63 years), Xianling Qiang formed an alliance with some Qiang tribes, with more than 200 Qiang leaders participating. Han sent Yi Quanguo to patrol Qiang to distinguish good from evil. Anguo first summoned the Qiang leaders, killed the cunning Hao Qiang, led his troops to attack his own kind, and beheaded thousands of people. Anguo's move caused great dissatisfaction among Qiang people. Previously, the Qiang people and the "Gui Yi Qiang" in the Han Dynasty were sent to attack the city and kill the Dragon Officer (Zhao Han Guo Chongchuan), and Yuhao (now Minhe County, Qinghai Province) defeated Anguo's army. Xuan Di ordered Zhao Chongguo and others to lead an army of 60,000 troops, attack with cameras, defeat the Qiang people first, please the Qiang people and win; The Han Dynasty established Jincheng as a vassal state to receive Qiang people. Now, Longxi's sister Qiang "rebelled" and Feng attacked Qiang. In the following decades, "serving in four foreign countries, there is no obstacle to the border." At that time, he threatened to lure the Qiang people to offer land and their families and set up Xihai County (the county governs Haiyan in Qinghai today); After the collapse of the Xin Mang regime, the Qiang people recovered this place. & gt& gt Since the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Qiang people have entered the fortress in large numbers, scattered in Jincheng and other places, and mixed with * * *. "The customs are different, the words are unreasonable, and a few people are invaded by petty officials, so they rebel" (Biography of Western Qiang in the Later Han Dynasty). The Qiang people can't stand the oppression of the Han nationality and constantly fight against it; The Eastern Han Dynasty imperial court sent troops to suppress many times, and moved some Qiang people to Longxi, Hanyang and other counties and three auxiliary areas. These Qiang people who moved in were servants of officials and powerful people, and their resentment gradually accumulated. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Qiang people waged three large-scale resistance struggles. In the first year of Andi yongchu (107), the Han dynasty stopped protecting the western regions and farming the land, and recruited Qiang people from Jincheng and Longxi counties to join forces with them. Qiang people are afraid of not coming back from a long way, and they often flee when they arrive in Jiuquan. Han county sent troops to intercept and even destroyed the retreat of Qiang people. Qiang people either surprised out of the fortress or United to resist. Due to the long-term attachment of Qiang people, they have no weapons, or use bamboo and wood as spears or carry crates as shields, and they have repeatedly defeated the Han army. The first batch of Qiang people planted another species in Yunnan, and other departments called themselves the "Son of Heaven", and gathered Qiang people from northern areas, Wudu, Shang Jun and Xihe. At one time, it attacked Zhao and Wei in the east and Yizhou in the south. In tackling key problems, it invaded Sanfu and cut off Longdao. In the fifth year of Yongchuan (1 1 1), some Qiang people entered Hedong and Hanoi and approached Luoyang. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, border counties moved to avoid the Qiang people. People are eager for their homes, so the government destroyed their crops and houses and forced residents to emigrate. The people who were forced to migrate were displaced and died along the road, and many of them joined hands with the Qiang people to fight against the government. The resistance struggle of the Qiang people lasted for 10 years before it was suppressed. After the first year of Yonghe in Shun Di (136), the Qiang people in Liangzhou, Bingzhou, Guanzhong and other places successively launched resistance struggles, which lasted for more than 10 years and cost more than 8 billion yuan. The generals of the Han army were greedy and indulgent, and did not worry about war. "The foot soldiers must not die, and the bones are face to face." In the second year of Emperor Huan (159), Qiang people all over the country went to war one after another. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, * * * appointed Huangfugui, Zhang Huan, Duan and others to lead the troops from Liangzhou. Huang Fugui and Zhang Huan "wooed" the Qiang people and severely punished the corrupt officials they hated. The Qiang people surrendered more than 200,000 people. Duan and foot soldiers, advocating force, brutally slaughtered, and tens of thousands of Qiang people died. & gt& gt The protracted war between Han and Qiang has brought serious harm to both sides. For Han * * *, it takes a lot of manpower, material resources and financial resources. Taking the first large-scale resistance struggle of Qiang people as an example, Han paid a heavy price for it. "The cost of the army, the traffic commission lost, spent more than 24 billion, and the government funds were used up. Extending to Neijun, there are countless dead people in the border, and Liangzhou two States are abolished ("The Biography of Western Qiang in the Later Han Dynasty"). War-torn Hexi region, the production is sluggish and the population is sharply reduced. According to the number of households and population in the second year of Yuan Dynasty (2) and the fifth year of Yonghe (140) in Geography of Han Dynasty, the number of households in Beidi County is only 4? 8%, Jincheng and Longxi only have 10% and 10? 4%, Anding and Hanyang only reached 14? 3%、45? 4%; In terms of population, Beidi County has only 8? 8%, Jincheng and Longxi only reached 12? 7%、 12? 5%, Anding Hanyang is only 20? 3%、49? 8%。 Ran Guangrong, Zhou: History of Qiang Nationality, Sichuan Nationalities Publishing House, 1984, p. 82. & gt& gt In the long war, mainland men were either drafted into the army or the burden was transferred to the corvee. "Farmland can't be cultivated, and crops can't be earned" ("The History of the Later Han Dynasty, Pang Shenchuan"), and the economy is greatly damaged. Although Han * * * pacified the Qiang people, "Han Zuo also declined." For the Qiang people, when they were suppressed by the Han government, they were harassed by their own leaders, dead or dead, and their livestock were taken captive, which made them in a difficult situation. In addition, in the process of pacifying the Qiang people, the Han Dynasty took Hexi (where the Qiang people lived) as the general. They fought bravely, were skilled in military strategy, were familiar with the terrain and knew the Qiang people like the back of their hands, thus reversing the passive situation of the Han army fighting the Qiang people. They controlled the most elite part of the Han army and gained the opportunity of political rise; With the rise of "Liangzhou Sanming", Liangzhou generals played an important role in the history of the late Eastern Han Dynasty. Chen Yong: On Sanming in Liangzhou, Historical Studies of China No.2,1998; Chen Yong: On Dong Zhuo's Entering Beijing, China History Research No.4, 1995. Press: Huangfugui's name is unknown, Zhang Huan's name is Ran Ming, Duan is from Liangzhou, and it was called "Sanming in Liangzhou" at that time.