How did the voting rights of American citizens change?

During the American colonial period, political participation was the privilege of wealthy adult white men, who were a minority in society. The authorities imposed various restrictions on the right to vote.

As early as the18th century, there was a consensus in the political thoughts of European and North American colonies, that is, people who depend on others must lack self-will, so they are unable to participate in public affairs. As Richard Press, a famous political theorist at that time, pointed out, those who can't even control their own lives should not have a say in the management of the country; Political freedom must be based on economic independence. Colonies generally require voters to own a certain amount of land, houses or other personal property. For example, Virginia election law 1762 requires voters to own 50 acres of uncultivated land, or 25 acres of land with more than 12 square feet of housing. South Carolina 1759 electoral law stipulates that a voter must own not less than 100 acres of uncultivated land or land, houses or plots in towns worth 60 pounds, and he has paid taxes on these lands one year before the election. The electoral laws of North Carolina 1743 and Georgia 176 1 stipulate that voters need to own 50 acres of land. /kloc-At the end of 0/7, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Rhode Island generally required voters to own land worth 40 shillings or personal property worth 40 pounds.

During the colonial period, "non-mainstream" sects such as Catholics, Quakers and Jews were generally deprived of political rights. /kloc-In the middle of the 0/7th century, all states from Virginia to Massachusetts (except Rhode Island) deprived Quakers of the right to vote. Maryland (17 18), Virginia (1699), New York and Rhode Island (17 19) explicitly deprived Catholics of the right to vote. New Hampshire (1680) and South Carolina (1759) have stipulated that only Protestants have the right to vote. Requiring Protestantism is obviously depriving Catholics of the right to vote. Pennsylvania, New York, South Carolina and Rhode Island also deprived Jewish immigrants of the right to vote.

1705 In June, Virginia stipulated that blacks, mulattoes and Indians were forbidden to hold any civil, military or church posts in the colonies, and offenders were fined 500 pounds. In 17 15 and 1723, North Carolina and Virginia clearly stipulate in their laws that blacks, mulattoes and Indians cannot enjoy the right to vote. 17 16 and 176 1 year, South Carolina and Georgia stipulated in their laws that only "whites" had the right to participate in the elections of colonial parliaments.

During the colonial period, although most laws did not explicitly stipulate it, women did not have the right to vote in all colonies. At that time, it was generally believed that women should raise their children at home and were not suitable for participating in politics.

Every colony generally requires that voters must be residents of the colony, town or constituency. Pennsylvania and Delaware require voters to live in the colonies for more than two years, New Jersey and North Carolina once required 1 year, and Georgia required 6 months.

States in New England (Puritan colonies) generally require voters to behave properly. Before being recognized as voters, they need to submit a letter of certification issued by most members of parliament, "freemen", priests or neighbors in their villages and towns to prove that this person is peaceful and civilized, has no bad hobbies such as drinking and lying, has never slandered or opposed the government and the Orthodox Church, and abides by the law. Massachusetts prohibits people who commit adultery and other crimes from participating in elections.

Most colonies require voters to be over 2 1 year old. Massachusetts and New Hampshire once required voters to be at least 24 years old. This provision was made because people at that time thought that "children" under 2 1 year old still lacked independent will and correct political judgment.

The above is mainly about the qualifications of the first-class voters in the colonial government. In the local elections in various colonies (including villages, towns, cities and counties), the qualifications of voters are also very different, but the characteristic of * * * is that the threshold is obviously lower than that of voters in colonial government elections. Massachusetts and New Hampshire, for example, require voters to own property worth 20 pounds.

According to scholars' research, in the British colonies, due to the abundant and cheap land resources, land and property possession are relatively common, and about 50%-75% of white adult males can meet the property qualification restrictions for voters in colonial and local government elections. This ratio is much higher than that of British voters. Another scholar believes that during the colonial period, about 70%-80% of white adult males could meet the property qualification requirements of voters. Because this standard is relatively easy to achieve, about three-quarters of adult white men have the right to vote in the post-colonial period.

In fact, if the proportion of voters in a particular colony or village is calculated, then the proportion of people who really have the right to vote is not that high. During the period of 1774- 1772, only about 9% of whites in Virginia participated in the election. In the elections of 1735, 176 1 and 1769, the voters in new york only accounted for about 8% of the city's total population. In rural areas of Pennsylvania, only about 8% people are eligible to vote, while in Philadelphia, the proportion is only about 2%.

In short, in the British North American colonies, only local-born free white Protestants who hold certain property and are over 2 1 year old are eligible to participate in the election of the colonial government. White poor people, white indentured laborers, blacks, Indians, women, Catholics and Jews who fail to meet the property requirements are generally deprived of the right to vote. Therefore, some scholars pointed out that during the colonial period, the right to vote was not a "right" enjoyed by everyone, but a "privilege" enjoyed by male Orthodox Christians who owned property.

Second, during the American Revolution,

During the American revolution, the threshold of citizens' right to vote was greatly reduced. With the approaching of the war and the beginning of the war of independence, it is urgent to unite the people, encourage them to join the army and expand the electorate. The Philadelphia Soldiers' Committee believes that even those foreigners who are not naturalized (in this case, German immigrants) should be given the right to vote if they take up arms to defend the colony. This will strengthen their feelings for the colonies and encourage them to fight for the protection of the colonies. During the American Revolution, the political consciousness of ordinary people was awakened, and the call for expanding the right to vote and other citizens' political rights spread throughout the villages and cities of the United States. During the revolutionary period, the slogan "no taxation does not mean" became a banner for the colonial people to oppose the autocratic power of the motherland. However, this slogan also urged those people in the colonies who were deprived of the right to vote because they did not meet the property qualification conditions to think deeply about their rights. They think that since they pay taxes according to law in the colonies, why are they deprived of representation in the government? A New Jersey man suggested that all people who pay taxes but can't vote should be given the right to vote, otherwise there will be no tax. 1776 at the turn of spring and summer, a group of militiamen drilled in the suburb of Annapolis, Maryland, insisting that all those who took up arms to defend the colony should have the right to vote. Because they failed to meet this requirement, they were all dissolved.

In order to win public support, the new colonial government established to get rid of British rule took the initiative to lower the conditions of voters. Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware and Virginia maintained their colonial voter eligibility requirements. Other states have relaxed the property qualification restrictions of voters, stipulated that taxpayers can become voters, or lowered the requirements for the quantity and value of property such as land. For example, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania and Georgia stipulate that adult taxpayers over the age of 2 1 can get the right to vote. According to the Constitution of North Carolina (1776), the qualifications of voters who elect senators are different: voters who elect senators need to own 50 acres of land; Taxpayers can elect representatives. South Carolina/KLOC-The state constitution passed in 0/778 stipulates that voters who elect senators and governors need to own 50 acres of land or urban plots, or pay taxes of up to 3 shillings within one year before the election. Massachusetts Constitution 1780 stipulates that voters who elect state legislators and governors have land with an annual income of 3 pounds, or have any property worth 60 pounds. The new state constitutions of each state have removed the restrictions on the religious qualifications of voters, and Catholics and Jews have gained the right to vote.

We can see that the general trend is to lower the property qualification of the right to vote. However, countries continue to maintain restrictions on voting rights, such as race, gender, age, place of residence and length of residence. For example, the constitutions of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and New York all emphasize that voters must be "men". In those states where the constitution does not mention the gender of voters, women are usually excluded by convention. During the American Revolution, the only state that gave women the right to vote was New Jersey. Pennsylvania, Maryland and North Carolina emphasize that voters must be "free men", implying that slaves and indentured laborers cannot enjoy the right to vote; The Constitution of South Carolina emphasizes that voters must be "free whites", so blacks and Indians cannot enjoy the right to vote.

Although the voting rights of all states were expanded during the American War of Independence, many landless white adult males, "underage" males under the age of 265, 438+0, blacks, Indians, women and mixed-race people were still deprived of the right to vote. In the 1980s, apart from urban residents, about one-half to three-quarters of white adult men in Virginia had no land. About 80,000 male residents in Virginia are deprived of voting rights due to property eligibility restrictions.

Iii.1the first half of the 9th century

1800 Jefferson was elected president of the United States, which opened the era of citizens' participation in politics. In 1790- 1835, people (small landlords, technicians, professionals, etc. People who have been deprived of the right to vote in each state have been submitting petitions to the state legislature and the state constitutional assembly, asking for an extension of the right to vote. German and Irish immigrants who recently flooded into the United States also demanded the right to vote. During the Second Anglo-American War, due to the shortage of soldiers, large-scale conscription was needed. However, many of those recruited do not have the right to vote. They took this opportunity to protest against the deprivation of their right to vote. Some enlightened people realize the importance of giving the militia equal voting rights to motivate them to defend their country. And the reasons for expanding voting rights in different regions are different. In the south, giving all whites the right to vote is conducive to their unity and to maintaining the stability of slavery; In the west, expanding the right to vote will help attract other residents or immigrants to settle down, thus promoting the development of the west and economic development. In addition, the struggle of political parties (in the early19th century, it was the federal party and the democratic party; After 1930s, Whigs and Democrats also played a great role in promoting the expansion of voting rights.

/kloc-in the first half of the 0/9th century, an important development of American citizens' voting rights was the implementation of adult white men's voting rights in various states. The western States are at the forefront of reform. 1799, the Kentucky Constitution stipulates that only adult white men have the right to vote. 1803, the Ohio constitution stipulates that adult white men have the right to vote as long as they pay certain taxes. Tennessee's constitution stipulates that adult men can only enjoy the right to vote if they own certain land, and they can also enjoy the right to vote if they live in their own constituency for more than six months. This is equivalent to the implementation of adult male voting rights. During the period of1812-1821,all adult men gained the right to vote when six western states joined the federation. During this period, the four states that joined the federation earlier also abolished the property qualification restrictions of the right to vote.

In those "old States", the voting rights of adult white men have been improved one after another. Maryland (180 1), South Carolina (18 10), Massachusetts (182 1), New York (182/kloc-0) None of the new states that joined the federation after 1790 stipulated the conditions of hard property possession for voters. In some states, paying taxes instead of owning a certain amount of land and property is a new condition for men to vote. During the period of 1830- 1855, six states cancelled the tax requirements for voters. By 1855, the economic restrictions on voting rights were almost completely abolished. In addition, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, Indiana, Michigan and other States have shortened the residence time of voters and greatly increased the number of voters.

The abolition of the property qualification restriction on the right to vote has changed the right to vote from a "privilege" enjoyed by some people to a universal right enjoyed by American adult white men. Apprentices and workers in emerging industries who earn their living by wages also have the right to vote. Ordinary people who have nothing to do with politics can now talk about public affairs in bars, living rooms and streets. American politics began to enter the era of civilian politics.

Universal suffrage for adult white men before the civil war expanded the political participation of voters. North Carolina canceled the requirement of land ownership for voters who elected senators, which doubled the number of voters in the state who participated in the Senate election, while the electoral system reform in Virginia 185 1 increased the number of voters by 60%. The new state constitution adopted by new york 182 1 increases the number of voters eligible to participate in state legislature elections from 200,000 to 260,000, the number of voters eligible to participate in governors and state senators from 654.38+to 260,000, and the number of white adult males eligible to participate in various elections reaches 80% of the total number of whites.

However, before the civil war, the development trend of voting rights was not linear and progressive, and its process was tortuous and retrogressive. This is first reflected in the issue of women's rights. States that once gave women the right to vote during the American Revolution actually deprived women of this right at the beginning of the19th century. 1807, the new jersey legislature announced that only "free white male citizens" have the right to participate in the election of state or county government officials or government officials in the United States. To make matters worse, American States have strengthened the deprivation of black people's right to vote while implementing universal suffrage for adult white men. Old states such as Connecticut, Pennsylvania and New York passed laws depriving blacks of the right to vote. Before Maine joined the Union and the Civil War in 18 19, every new state restricted its voting rights to whites. Southern States such as Maryland and North Carolina also deprived blacks of the right to vote. Before 1860, only five states, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Maine and Rhode Island, gave blacks and whites equal voting rights. Blacks in these five States only account for 6% of the black population in the whole North.

1832, the British electoral law increased the number of voters from 2% to 4% of the population. It was not until 1848 that France abolished the restriction of high property qualifications and implemented universal suffrage for men. But later, the Second Reich quickly abolished this provision. In Germany, universal suffrage for men began at 187 1. In the Netherlands and Nordic countries, it was not until the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century that men's universal suffrage was realized. Before 1860, the United States was the only country in the world that implemented universal suffrage for white adult males. America's leading position in public participation in politics is not only reflected in the number of American voters, but also in the number of government officials who need to be elected by the people. In Europe, citizens' participation in elections is limited to the lower house of parliament and local councils. In the United States, a large number of officials at the federal, state and local levels need public approval to take office. 1850, the new electoral law passed in Virginia stipulates that governors, judges and county government officials are directly elected by the people.

Four. Civil War and Reconstruction Period

During this period, 4 million black slaves in the south of the United States obtained the civil rights and voting rights, but by the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century, black people in the south were generally deprived of their newly acquired political rights.

* * * The Republican-controlled Congress passed the civil rights law of 1866 and the amendment to Article 14 of the Federal Constitution, which formally granted the black people civil rights in law. In order to limit the deprivation of black people's right to vote, the second paragraph of the amendment to Article 14 of the Federal Constitution stipulates that if any state restricts or deprives any male citizen of the right to vote, the representative base of the state shall be reduced in proportion to the number of male citizens deprived of the right to vote in the state. The function of the first paragraph is to punish the southern States that prevent southern blacks from participating in elections.

* * * And the Republican-controlled Congress is trying to expand black voting rights in areas controlled by the federal government. 10 On 8 October, Congress passed a law granting black people in the District of Columbia the right to vote. 1867 65438+1On October 25th, Congress passed a law prohibiting existing or later-formed territories in the United States from depriving anyone of the right to vote on the grounds of race, skin color and previous slave status. 1on March 2, 867, the reconstruction law imposed military control on the southern rebel States. The amendment to article 14 of the federal constitution is regarded as the condition for the southern rebel states to rejoin the federation, and all adult males (including blacks) in these states are called to elect representatives to attend the constitutional assembly, and these representatives meet to amend the constitution, so that all adult males can be guaranteed the right to vote in the state constitution. The new constitution will not take effect until it is approved by the majority of voters and approved by the National Assembly. By July 1868, seven southern states had met the requirements of Congress and were readmitted as federal members.

So far, * * * and the Congress led by the Party have made unprecedented achievements in protecting citizens' voting rights. However, at this time, the northern and western States also generally deprived blacks of the right to vote. 1869 In February, the radical Congress and the Congress controlled by political parties passed the amendment to Article 15 of the Federal Constitution, which stipulated: "The voting rights of citizens of the United States shall not be deprived or restricted by the United States or any state because of their race, color or previous slavery." The adoption of this amendment is a milestone in American history. Theoretically, it gives black adult males the right to vote. The adoption of the amendment to Article 15 of the Federal Constitution and several implementing laws later passed by the National Assembly show that the federal government has begun to assume the responsibility of protecting citizens' voting rights.

The equal political rights of blacks are only symbolic, and only a few blacks benefit from it. 1869- 187 1 year, there were only two black congressmen and 1 black senators in the US Congress. During the period of 187 1- 1873, there were five black representatives in the US Congress. During the period of 1873- 1875, there were seven black representatives in the US Congress. 1875- 1877 The 44th Congress has 7 black representatives and 1 black senators. Since then, the number of black members in Congress has gradually decreased. 1877- 1879, there were only two black representatives in Congress. During the period of 1877- 1895, the number of black members of the South Carolina legislature was reduced from 39 to 5. Except for 1879- 1880 and 1882- 1883, the intermediate years are all below 10. 1895, only five blacks attended the state constitutional convention that deprived blacks of the right to vote. Since then, there are only 1 black members in the state legislature.

1876, after the Hayes-Turden agreement, the federal troops withdrew from the south. The Democrats who regained power in the southern States took all kinds of despicable means to deprive the southern blacks of their newly acquired political rights. Amendment 15 of the federal constitution prohibits states from depriving blacks of the right to vote on the grounds of race and color. So the states took some seemingly unrelated measures to deprive blacks of the right to vote, while circumventing federal laws. For example, 1890, the Mississippi Constitution deprives people who commit bribery, robbery, theft, arson, murder, perjury and bigamy of the right to vote; In addition to paying a poll tax of two dollars, voters must also be able to read the state constitution, or be able to understand and explain it reasonably when reading it. 1895, the new state constitution of South Carolina requires voters to live in the state for two years, pay a poll tax of one dollar, be able to read and write any chapter of the state constitution or understand the state constitution read to them, or own property worth 300 dollars; Criminals are not eligible to vote. By 19 10, the former confederacy 1 1 and Oklahoma deprived blacks of the right to vote by the above means.

The right to vote just won by blacks was regained. After the reconstruction, the political democratization in the south was seriously frustrated. South, North and West parted ways on the road of political democratization, and gradually drifted away. In addition, the adoption of the amendment to the federal constitution during the reconstruction period failed to guarantee the voting rights of American women, Indians and other colored people.

Verb (abbreviation of verb) progressive movement period and World War I period.

The landmark event in the history of American voting rights during the Progressive Movement and World War I was that the United States finally wrote the prohibition of depriving women of voting rights on the grounds of gender into the federal constitution, and established political equality between men and women.

1848,19-On July 20th, 2010, American women held the first women's rights conference in American history in Sene Cyberhole, New York, and issued the Declaration and Resolution of Views, which formally raised the issue of women's voting rights for the first time, marking the beginning of the American women's voting rights movement.

Giving black men the right to vote during the reconstruction period pushed the feminist movement to a new stage. In the National Assembly, members of Congress debated many times on whether to give women the right to vote, but ended in vain. The conservative forces of the whole society still dominate.

19 The 1970s and 1990s were very active periods for the feminist movement. In the west, frontier life has played down the traditional view of women's status. Women participate in various forms of productive labor together with men, which makes it easier for people here to accept the view of gender equality. 1869, the first local council established after the establishment of the local government in Wyoming passed a bill, stipulating that women enjoy the same right to vote and hold government positions as men. 1890, when Wyoming joined the Union, its state constitution stipulated that women had equal voting rights. Subsequently, Colorado (1893), Utah (1896), Idaho (1896), Washington (19 10), California (19 The political forces in Congress are constantly reorganizing. Members of congress in western States have become a great force to promote the implementation of women's voting rights in the United States.

/kloc-from the end of 0/9 to the beginning of the 20th century, women left their families extensively and participated in the country's economic construction, getting rid of their dependence on their husbands and gaining independence. The development of science and technology has also liberated more and more women from their families. In education, women are more and more equal to men, and the sense of equality is generally awakened. "The massive progressive movement was the driving force for various reforms in the United States at the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century. Women's movement for voting rights coincides with the progressive movement and becomes an inseparable part of the progressive movement. The strong reform atmosphere of the progressive movement and the active participation of a large number of women have created a huge momentum for the feminist movement, making the decision makers of the US government have to seriously consider women's voting rights. " During World War I, with a large number of women participating in the production of national defense industry, the voice of protecting women's right to vote is growing. 1918 On September 30, 2008, Wilson gave a speech in the Senate, urging him to pass the amendment to Article19 of the Federal Constitution, believing that this measure would help the war go smoothly and eventually win. He gave a full evaluation of the role of women in the war: without the services provided by women in all aspects, the war could not go on. 1919 In June, Congress passed the amendment to Article19 of the Federal Constitution, stipulating that American citizens shall not deprive women of the right to vote on the grounds of sex. 1920 65438+ 10. In October, the amendment to Article 19 of the Federal Constitution was passed by a quorum of states, and American women formally gained the right to vote.

6. 1950s and 1970s

During this period, almost all restrictions on adult citizens' right to vote were abolished through a series of legislation of Congress and rulings of federal courts, and the federal government really assumed the responsibility of protecting and guaranteeing citizens' rights. The main driving forces of this political change are World War II, the Cold War and the civil rights movement. During World War II, citizens of different races and sexes in the United States made great contributions to the victory of the war and also inspired their awareness of rights. During the "Cold War" period, the racial and gender discrimination in the United States made its goal of establishing a "leader of a free world and a democratic country" awkward and became the laughing stock of all countries in the world. From the 1950s to the end of 1960s, people of all races, sects and genders participated in the civil rights movement, which triggered a "rights revolution", and voices for safeguarding the rights of the socially disadvantaged groups kept rising.

During the second reconstruction, the federal government began to take practical measures to restore and protect the voting rights of southern blacks. 1965, Congress passed the voting right bill of 1965, which prohibits any state or political branch (including county government, parish or voter registration agency) from restricting or depriving any citizen of the United States of the right to vote through qualification restrictions or election procedures on the grounds of race or color. The means to prohibit depriving citizens of the right to vote include: requiring voters to read and explain any materials; Ask voters to show their education level and knowledge level on any topic; Require voters to have good moral quality; Requiring registered voters or other people to guarantee for voters; Voters are required to pay poll tax. In order to protect the voting rights of non-English ethnic groups, the law also prohibits States from requiring voters to read and translate English materials in areas where the language of instruction in schools is not English. In addition, the law prohibits election officials from deliberately refusing to register legitimate voters or counting votes, and prohibits election officials from tampering with or destroying votes or tampering with election results; It is forbidden for anyone to intimidate, threaten or force any voter or help any voter to participate in the election. Anyone who violates the above provisions will be fined up to $5,000, imprisoned up to five years or both.

In the four years after the voting rights bill of 1965 was passed, nearly four-fifths of the adult blacks in the south registered as voters. In Mississippi, the number of blacks registered as voters rose from 6.7% in 1964 to 59.4% in 1968. In Alabama, the proportion of black registered voters increased from 23% to 53% in the same period. In Dallas County, Alabama, the number of registered black voters soared from less than 65,438+0,000 to more than 8,500 in the months after the law came into effect.

After the "1965 electoral law" was passed, all kinds of barriers restricting citizens' right to vote fell apart under the impact of public opinion and law. The era of universal suffrage in American history is long overdue.

1964, the 24th amendment of the federal constitution was passed, which prohibited whether to pay poll tax or other taxes as a condition for becoming a voter in national elections.

By 1975, the literacy test as a voter's condition was almost completely abolished, and the laws of most States stipulated that illiterate people could be helped to vote by others.

1964 Most states require voters to live in their constituency for more than one year before the election. This provision deprived150,000 people of their right to vote. 1970, the National Assembly passed the amendment to the Voting Rights Law 1965, announcing the lifting of the long-term residence restrictions imposed on voters who elected the president and vice president, and establishing a unified national standard for citizens who are not in their original residence to register for the presidential election; States are required to legislate to guarantee the voting rights of citizens who are not in their original places of residence.

197 1 In March, Congress passed the amendment to Article 26 of the Federal Constitution, stipulating that American citizens aged 18 or above shall not be deprived or restricted by the United States or any state because of their age. This constitutional amendment has enabled American young people aged11.50,000 18-20 to have the right to vote, making the United States the 5th country to grant the right to vote to adults aged1above.

1975, Congress passed the amendment of 1965 voting rights law, which prohibited any state or its political branch from using any voter restriction conditions to restrict or deprive a person of voting rights as an American citizen. When more than 5% of the citizens who have reached the age of voters in a certain state belong to minority language groups, or the illiteracy rate of a certain minority is higher than the national illiteracy rate, materials such as ballot papers, voter registration, election guides, etc. must be in English and the minority language at the same time; If the language of a minority language group is only spoken or unwritten, the countries concerned must provide oral assistance. "Language minority" refers to Native Americans, Asian Americans, Alaska Native Americans or Hispanics. 1982 electoral law also allows the blind, illiterate and disabled to choose others to help him vote.

By the 1970s, the United States had achieved universal suffrage for all adult citizens aged 65,438+08.

A noteworthy phenomenon in contemporary American politics is that while the right to vote has expanded, the enthusiasm and degree of citizens' political participation have continued to decrease. In recent years, the proportion of American citizens participating in national elections has dropped sharply. In the presidential election of 1960, 62.8% of eligible voters participated in the election. From 65438 to 0988, only 50.2% of all voters participated in the presidential election. In the presidential election of 1992, this proportion rose to 55.2%. 1996, the proportion fell below 50% for the first time since 1924. According to scholars' research, among 20 industrialized democracies, the United States ranks second from the bottom in the voting rate. During the period of 1972- 1980, the average turnout rate in the United States was 54%, while that in other 20 democratic countries was 80%.

There are many reasons why a large number of voters are unwilling to participate in the election. For example, citizens' sense of obligation has decreased, citizens feel that participating in elections cannot change their living standards, the number of families in which both people have to work for a living has increased, and various elections have been held frequently (elections are held almost every year). Complicated voter registration procedures will also make some people who have emigrated temporarily lose the opportunity to participate in the election. In addition, Americans must choose from limited political choices, and their choices may not be in their interests. And the two major political parties are getting closer and closer on many issues. For many people, they cannot provide enough choices to attract them to vote.