On the Achievements of Industrial Revolution

Achievements of the first industrial revolution in the world

/kloc-in the second half of 0/8th century and19th century, the industrial revolution first occurred in advanced countries in Europe and America, such as Britain, France, Belgium, Germany and the United States.

The emergence of machine industry has opened up a broad prospect of utilizing the rich natural resources endowed by nature, and fundamentally changed the industrial structure of countries that have completed the industrial revolution, and the original agricultural society based on agriculture has changed into an industrial society based on industry. The comprehensive national strength of these countries has been greatly enhanced. The focus of world economy, science, culture, military and politics has shifted from the ancient civilization in Asia to Europe and North America, and the world pattern has changed greatly.

The influence of the world's first industrial revolution on the course of world history.

First, a great leap in productivity.

Replacing hand tools with machines, and replacing manpower, animal power, water power and wind power with power machines such as steam engines, internal combustion engines and motors have overcome the limitations of human animal power and the unpredictability and uncontrollability of natural power, improved human ability to use and transform nature, and achieved a great leap in productivity. Compared with previous technological changes, the changes in production technology in the industrial revolution are comprehensive, profound and large-scale. It involves all sectors of the national economy, from textile industry to electric power industry, from mining industry to metallurgical industry, from metal processing to machine tool manufacturing, from agriculture to transportation, and there is no department that is not involved in the torrent of technological revolution. In many industrial sectors, mechanization involves the whole production process.

The adoption of machines is only one aspect of the industrial revolution, and scientific production organization and management also play an important role in improving production efficiency. Concentrate a large number of machines and manpower in the factory to realize the high specialization of labor division; The machines of all links in the production process are reasonably formed into a machine system to form a production line; Scientifically calculate the labor time required to complete each process, rationally arrange the labor force, and maximize labor productivity; The specialization of product parts has been realized, the substitutability has been increased, the specialization and large-scale production of products have been realized, the cost has been reduced, and the durability of products has been improved. These measures have all promoted the improvement of labor productivity. Due to the accompanying development of industrialization and urbanization, the supply of labor, electricity and raw materials is sufficient, and the public facilities are complete, which is conducive to giving full play to the advantages of producing specialization and cooperation and improving investment efficiency.

The discovery and invention of new materials can not be underestimated in the development of productive forces. The technical progress of metallurgical industry, especially the development of iron and steel industry, provides durable basic materials for working machinery, working machinery, vehicles, buildings and daily life. The invention of gas manufacturing, power generation technology and petroleum refining methods has provided new heat sources and power for mankind. The development of chemical industry makes it possible to artificially manufacture dyes, fertilizers, medicines and other products closely related to human life.

Mechanization of production process and scientific organization and management have doubled labor productivity, industrial production and trade volume have increased at an unprecedented speed, and various social and economic indicators have been significantly improved. From 1820 to 160 in 1980, the total output of 16 developed capitalist countries increased to 60 times, the population quadrupled, the per capita output value increased to 13 times, and the average annual working hours of a labor force decreased from 3,000 hours.

If we look around the world, the extent of economic growth is equally impressive. During the period from 1860 to 19 13, the world industrial output increased seven times, and the world trade volume increased from 185 1 to 1 to 7.84 billion, an increase of 65438. Industrially developed countries occupy a large share in the growth of world industry and trade.

The industrial revolution has brought about great changes in the economic structure and labor structure of European and American countries. Take the United Kingdom as an example, the proportion of agriculture in the gross national product in the United Kingdom dropped from 45% in 1770 to 22% in 184 1 year, and then to 6% in 190 1 year, and the industry correspondingly dropped from 20%. The proportion of agricultural labor force in the total labor force in Britain decreased from 35% in 180 1 year to 9% in 190 1 year, and the industrial labor force increased from 29% to 54%.

The development of factory industry has led to the emergence of industrial bourgeoisie and industrial proletariat, which has brought about great changes in the social class structure. The establishment of modern large-scale industry has laid the economic foundation of the capitalist system and established the central position of the bourgeoisie in the political and economic life of the country. The change of class power contrast pushed the aristocratic and landlord classes, which were dominant in the old society, to a secondary position. After radical bourgeois movement or democratic revolution, or through a series of gradual reforms, the bourgeoisie gained the right to participate in political power, and most residents also gained the right to vote. Party politics and bourgeois parliamentary democracy were gradually established. With the development of the economic base, the functions of the state have changed, and the government agencies have changed from being in charge of finance, diplomacy, military affairs and internal affairs to being huge machines for performing various functions. Take the establishment of British government agencies as an example. 176 1 year, the government has only 14 ministerial seats. By 1892, the number of ministerial seats had increased to 48, the government had strengthened its functions in managing economy, education, colonial affairs, local affairs and justice, and the establishment of government institutions and the modernization of state functions. In order to safeguard their economic interests and consolidate their class rule, the bourgeoisie has established a very complex and perfect state machine. While the economically powerful European and American powers are expanding economically, militarily and territorially to all parts of the world, they are also trying their best to spread their own political systems to the whole world.

Second, the formation of global transportation network and world market.

In the pre-industrial society, due to the backward means of transportation and the difficulty of traveling, all parts of the world were basically isolated, and there was little exchange of personnel and cultural goods. Before the invention of steamships, maritime transportation was time-consuming and dangerous, and it took about two months to sail from Europe to America. The trade between Europe, America, Asia and Africa is only manipulated by a few adventurous businessmen, and the number and variety of foreign goods are few, and the prices are also very expensive. European navigators, businessmen and missionaries set foot in coastal trading posts and estuaries. The hinterland of Asia, Africa and the United States is still unknown to Europeans. As for Oceania, it was not discovered by Europeans until17th century.

During the industrial revolution, the combination of steam engine, sea transportation and land railway transportation brought the society into the era of steamboat and railway transportation. The traffic revolution has fundamentally changed the isolation of various regions on the earth. Since 18 19, when American steamboat Savannah crossed the Atlantic to reach Liverpool and Petersburg, the sailing time of European countries to America has been shortened from about two months in 10- 15 days. Regular and irregular shipping links have been established between European countries, between Europe and other continents and anywhere navigable. /kloc-in the 0 ~ (th) century, shipbuilding technology has made great progress. The propulsion device was changed from paddle wheel to propeller, and the hull was changed from wood to steel. After 70 of 19, steamboats overwhelmed wooden boats in number. The United Kingdom, the United States, France, Germany and other countries have set up ocean shipping companies one after another, opening up regular routes between Europe and the United States and between European and American countries to important ports in Asia and Africa.

Since Britain built the world's first railway in 1825, the upsurge of railway construction has quickly spread to the European continent and North America, and then to the colonies and affiliated countries of European and American countries. The total railway mileage in the world increased from 5,490 miles in 1840 to 222,000 miles in 1880 and reached 466,000 miles in 1900. Some countries have built transcontinental railway trunk lines and international railways. The United States is at the forefront of all countries. /kloc-in the 0/9th century, five railway trunk lines were built throughout the country, connecting the east and west coasts of the United States and the northern and southern territories. Canada also built a transcontinental railway at 1885. 1888, Europe built a large railway from Calais to Constantinople. 1903, trans-siberian railway was built in Russia. The South American railway from Argentina to Chile was also completed at 19 10. The development of railway transportation and highway transportation has expanded the links between various regions of the mainland and broadened the commodity market.

In order to expand overseas markets and strengthen colonial plunder, European and American countries are committed to breaking through the bottleneck of ocean transportation. 1855, the United States built a railway crossing the isthmus of Panama. 19 14, the Panama Canal was completed. Railways and canals connect the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, greatly shortening the sea route between the two oceans. 1869 The opening of the Suez Canal shortened the distance from London to Singapore and Mumbai by 1/3 and 2/5 respectively. 1895, Germany built the Kiel Canal, which opened a shortcut between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.

The opening of the sea route connecting the mainland and the ocean makes the sea transportation network and the land transportation network connected with each other, forming a global transportation network and leading to the formation of the world market.

In addition, the invention and wide application of advanced communication means such as telegraph and telephone provide advanced tools for regional information exchange around the world.

Third, the spread of advanced technology.

The new technology produced in the industrial revolution is the wealth of all mankind, and it will inevitably spread from the place where it was born to the surrounding areas. Although this kind of communication will be influenced by various political factors and social conditions, it will eventually promote the economic development of various regions in the world.

The center of modern technological revolution was Britain at first, and then it quickly spread to the European continent and North America, and then further spread to the whole world. The diffusion of new technology is mainly through the mechanical export of advanced countries, foreign investment, the flow of engineering and technical personnel and technology smuggling.

European countries and North America with better socio-economic conditions first absorbed advanced technology from Britain, followed by white colonies, and then other countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa.

/kloc-in the second half of the 8th century and at the beginning of the 9th century, Britain tried to monopolize advanced industrial production technology, and once issued a decree prohibiting the migration of skilled workers and the export of machinery. However, new technologies cannot be stopped. Some advanced machines are licensed or smuggled to other countries, and many technicians and skilled workers emigrate abroad regardless of the ban, bringing advanced production technology, machine drawings and technical knowledge to the immigrant countries. Some technical information is published in the world through publications.

France introduced the British Jenny spinning machine in the 1970s of 18, and then the United States and many European countries introduced the British spinning machine and loom, and the mechanized textile industry technology soon spread all over the world. Britain's new engine steam engine also spread to continental Europe and North America in a short time. The first railway in France is only five years later than the first railway in Britain, seven years later in the United States and 10 years later in Germany. In the twenty or thirty years after the appearance of railways in Britain, the railway fever started in Europe and North America, and a brand-new land transportation tool quickly swept the world.

Continental European countries and North America not only import a large number of British machines, but also introduce British entrepreneurs and technicians. In this regard, France is a typical example. Allen Manby, a British entrepreneur, and his four sons set up a machine factory and a gas factory in France, and owned inland steamboats. Manby and his partner daniel wilson set up a machinery manufacturing enterprise near Paris. These enterprises established by the British had a considerable impact on the development of French industry at that time. John Wilkinson built the first French coke smelting furnace in Lecreux on 1785. British capital, technical knowledge and skilled engineers promoted steamboat transportation and railway construction in France.

19 In the1940s, about half of the shares of French Railways were British. There are countless British engineers and technicians in France. By 1830, there were 1.5 to 20,000 British workers employed in France to operate equipment imported from Britain in factories, railways and canals.

John hughes, an Englishman, founded the Ukrainian ironmaking industry in cooperation with New Russia in 1869. At first, the miners, mixers and blast furnace workers in this enterprise all came from Wales. Irish entrepreneur W T Malvani and his partners have made great contributions to the development of Ruhr coalfield. William and Cockerill, mechanics in Lancashire, helped Belgium establish textile and metallurgical industries and installed the first steam engine there. Norway also developed the modern cotton textile industry because of the introduction of British technology and equipment.

An important channel for British technology to spread abroad is foreign investment. /kloc-in the 0/9th century, Britain was the largest capital exporter. With the support of British capital, a series of railway companies have been established in Europe and North America, including inland shipping companies, mines, textile mills, machinery factories, gas plants and waterworks. Capital export is closely related to the export of machinery and equipment and the migration of technicians.

The technological achievements of the industrial revolution in Britain and other European and American countries followed closely also spread to Latin America, Oceania, Asia and Africa, but the fate of these countries is very different from that of European and American countries, which will be discussed in the next section.

Fourth, the dual impact of the industrial revolution in Europe and America on Asian, African and Latin American countries.

The industrial revolution in Europe and America had a completely different impact on the historical development of Asia, Africa and Latin America, and accelerated the process of small and weak countries becoming colonies and vassals. At the same time, when the European and American powers colonized and plundered Asia, Africa and Latin America, they inevitably brought advanced industrial technology from Europe and America to these areas, which made these countries slowly embark on the road of industrialization. Compared with European and American countries, the modernization road of Asian, African and Latin American countries is extremely difficult and tortuous, full of obstacles and setbacks. The resistance mainly comes from the predatory and slavery policies of European and American powers.

The industrial revolution has made the industrial productivity of major capitalist countries in Europe and America advance by leaps and bounds, and the industrial finished products have doubled. Under the capitalist mode of production, the working people are in a position of exploitation, with low purchasing power, slow growth of domestic market demand and inability to accept rapidly increasing products, resulting in a crisis of overproduction, so capitalists are eager to expand overseas markets. At the same time, the demand for raw materials and agricultural products in Europe and the United States has also increased sharply, and expanding the sources of cheap raw materials and agricultural products has become a top priority for these countries. The dominant position in the world market has enabled these countries to obtain a large number of excess profits and form surplus capital. They need to go to underdeveloped countries and colonies to find favorable investment sites in order to make use of cheap labor and raw materials in those areas and earn more excess profits. These factors pushed the major capitalist countries in Europe and America to set off an unprecedented wave of colonial expansion. The industrial revolution also gave the European and American powers the material strength to expand outward.

/kloc-the 0/9th century, especially the last 30 years of this century, was the most intense and crazy time for European and American powers to compete for colonies. Their struggle extends from the coastal areas of Asia, Africa, Latin America and Australia to the mainland. All the areas that can be developed have the footprints of colonialists, and the whole world has been carved up by imperialists.

Britain, the first country to start the industrial revolution, is also the largest colonial empire. The ancient civilization with relatively developed economy in Asia is the primary target of British plunder. By the middle of19th century, Britain completely conquered India, and forced the China government to cede territory, pay reparations and open trading ports through two Opium Wars. It also conquered Singapore, Malaysia, Sarawak, Borneo, Brunei, Afghanistan, Myanmar and other countries and regions, and declared them British colonies or protectorates. The French regard Indian zhina as their sphere of influence. He launched wars of aggression many times, and finally occupied zhina in the 1980s, and then divided the sphere of influence between Siam and Britain. Social and economic development in most parts of Africa is relatively slow, but it is rich in resources, and it is the last continent contested by western powers.

After entering the 1970s of 19, the struggle of the great powers to carve up Africa entered a new stage. 1869 After the opening of the Suez Canal, North Africa became the focus of contention between Britain and France, 1882 Egypt became a British colony. Then the British colonists went up the Nile and occupied Sudan and the whole Nile Valley, while the French turned Algiers, Tunisia and northern Morocco into their spheres of influence. In West Africa, Britain and France compete for the Niger River and Congo River basins. Britain occupied land in Sierra Leone, gambia river, volta river and the lower Niger River, as well as the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and Nigeria. Since the 1980s, a large area of land from the Mediterranean to Guinea has formed French Africa. As soon as Germany completed the industrial revolution, industrialists set up a colonial association (1882) to promote colonial expansion. In 1980s, Germany occupied Angra and Pecuna, which are rich in diamonds, and declared Togo and Cameroon as German protectorates. The Netherlands and Belgium also participated in the colonial plunder of Africa.

The United States established a colonial association in 18 17 to advocate colonialism. Industrialization accelerated the pace of American colonial expansion. First, it crossed the Appalachian mountains, expanded its territory to the west, slaughtered Indians and seized their homes. In the 1940s, the United States launched a war against Mexico and annexed Texas, New Mexico and California. Latin America is regarded as the focus of expansion by American capital.

From 65438 to 0898, the United States launched the Spanish-American War, seized Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and formally annexed the Hawaiian Islands.

Latin America was originally a colony of Spain and Portugal. From 18 10 to 1826, the Latin American people gained national independence through the independence movement. However, the newly independent countries are very weak politically and economically, and the capital of countries such as Britain, France and the United States takes advantage of it to step up economic penetration and control the economic lifeline of these countries. They plundered the resources of the region and exploited their cheap labor by means of massive immigration, direct investment and unequal trade, which made these countries fall into a semi-colonial situation.

After the industrial revolution, while the western powers expanded their colonies, they also changed the way of plundering them. In the pre-industrial period, the protagonist of colonial plunder was commercial capital and its controlled franchise companies. Although they also carried out economic development in the colonies, most of them adopted direct plunder, forced tribute and predatory trade, which did not cause fundamental changes in the social economy of the colonies. After the industrial revolution, western industrial countries, out of the need of economic development, strengthened the economic development of colonies as markets, raw materials producing areas and investment places for promoting industrial products. Colonies became the targets of industrial capital exploitation. In order to make use of the cheap labor and rich resources in the colonies, they actively invested in laying railways, building ports, developing mines, cutting down forests, establishing plantations and establishing processing plants, especially primary processing workshops. The scope of colonial activities has developed in both breadth and depth. The colonial activities in this period made profound changes in the social and economic conditions of the conquered areas and made them a part of the world capitalist economic system.

/kloc-Before 0/9th century, European countries plundered Africa, except for gold, diamonds, ivory and other valuables, mainly by hunting blacks and engaging in slave trade, as an important means of primitive accumulation of capital. After entering the stage of industrial revolution, the European industrial bourgeoisie believed that it was more favorable to open Africa as an industrial product market, a source of raw materials and an investment place, and instead took a stand against the slave trade. Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and France, which actively engaged in the slave trade, announced the prohibition of the slave trade in the first 20 years of the19th century. European industrial countries need to use human resources in Africa to develop mines and land there in order to obtain more excess profits.

Australia was a British exile before 1820. Since then, Britain has changed its policy. From 1840, it stopped expelling criminals there, turned to economic development, immigrated in large numbers, mined gold and other mineral deposits there, developed sheep farming, and turned Australia into a "wool bag for John cattle". Australia exported fine wool from 1807 to 183 1, and the export volume reached 2.5 million pounds. 185 1 year, gold mines were discovered in many places in Australia, and there was a gold rush. In the following 10 years, the value of gold mining was 124 million pounds. During this period, wool exports and grain planting area increased by more than 1 time. Australia's economic development speed and per capita income level both exceed its own.

The change of Britain's plundering way to India can best illustrate the influence of the industrial revolution on the fate of colonial countries. At first, Britain plundered India mainly through the East India Company. It seized Indian land, taxed it and plundered it. The company monopolized the export of oriental spices, cotton silk fabrics and tea to the European market and made huge profits. After the industrial revolution began, the British new industrial bourgeoisie urgently needed to expand overseas markets and challenge the monopoly position of the East India Company. 18 13, the company's trading business was cancelled and it became the military administrative agency under British colonial rule. Since then, British industrial products have flooded into India.

India used to be a big country in textile industry, and its handmade cotton fabrics and silk products once enjoyed a high reputation in the European market. In order to protect the domestic wool industry, Britain once banned British people from wearing Indian cotton cloth and imposed high tariffs on imported cotton cloth. After the development of British machine textile industry, a large number of machine-made cotton yarn and cloth were imported into India. During the period of 1830- 1880, British cotton yarn exported to India increased from 56.9 million yards (including China, Japan and Java) to 18 1340 yards, and cotton yarn exported to India increased from 4.9 million pounds to 476,540 yards. 1850, British cotton exports to India accounted for 1/4 of its total cotton exports. India has changed from an important exporter of cotton and silk to a big importer. By the end of 1950s and 1970s, India had imported more than 50% goods. The products made by British machines destroyed the looms of Indian spinning wheels and destroyed the urban and rural handicrafts in the colonies. The science of British steam engine completely destroyed the combination of agriculture and handicraft industry in India, and made millions of urban and rural craftsmen and farmers who took handicraft industry as their sideline lose their livelihood. In addition to textiles, Britain also exports metal products, ceramics, glass, paper and other manufactured goods to India, and India has become Britain's most important market in Asia.

Since the two Opium Wars, western powers have forced China to open its doors with guns, turning China into an industrial market, a raw material producing area and an investment place for industrialized countries in Europe and America.

In the East, only Japan has escaped the tragedy of becoming a colony and semi-colony. Through the Meiji Restoration, he reformed politics, successfully studied western science and technology, embarked on the road of industrialization independently, and finally joined the ranks of colonial expansion.

The trade between European and American industrial countries and colonial and semi-colonial countries is mainly to import raw materials and food, and export finished products. Take Britain as an example. During the period of 1870- 1879, food and raw materials only accounted for 16.6% of British exports, while industrial products accounted for 83.4%. Among the imported goods, food and raw materials account for 86.6%, and industrial products only account for 13.4%. Trade with colonies plays an important role in the foreign trade of major colonial empires. Take Britain as an example. 19 13 years, colonial food accounted for 30.3% of the total British imports, and raw materials accounted for 34.5%.

The economic development of colonial and semi-colonial countries in western industrial countries has had a dual impact on the development of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

On the one hand, when a large number of machine-made products from industrial countries were dumped in these areas, the local traditional handicrafts were destroyed, indigenous craftsmen went bankrupt one after another, and the traditional social and economic structure was destroyed. Western industrial powers developed mineral deposits and monoculture in colonies and semi-colonies. All their economic activities are aimed at turning these countries into industrial products markets, raw material suppliers and investment places.

The economic development of industrial countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America is strongly plundered and enslaved, which hinders the normal development of the local economy. Imperialist countries manipulate the economic lifeline of enslaved countries, control their finances and customs, dominate their economic life, and keep them in a subordinate position for a long time.

On the other hand, when the western industrial powers turn Asia, Africa and Latin America into industrial products markets and raw materials producing areas, they will inevitably bring advanced industrial production technologies and scientific knowledge from the West to Asia, Africa and Latin America. The colonial development of western powers broke the isolation of Asian, African and Latin American countries, destroyed the traditional social and economic structure, disintegrated the original self-sufficient agriculture and handicrafts, promoted the slow development of capitalist production relations, and swept Asian, African and Latin American countries into the torrent of industrialization and became a part of the world capitalist market. In order to better plunder the resources and wealth of Asian, African and Latin American countries, western powers generally invest in building railways, developing land and water transportation, developing businesses and opening banks, factories and schools. These economic activities have objectively promoted the development of local ethnic industries and the transformation of agricultural society.

The development of colonial industries created the national bourgeoisie and the proletariat. For the broad masses of people in colonial and semi-colonial countries, the process of being enslaved by imperialist powers was extremely painful, but they finally woke up after the torment of purgatory. After arduous struggles, national independence and national liberation movements with the proletariat as the main force, most countries were liberated before the 1970s and embarked on the road of independent development.

The industrial revolution in Europe and the United States accelerated the development of the world calendar, which not only made the economy and culture of Western Europe and North America get unprecedented development. It also changed the historical destiny of Asian, African and Latin American countries and brought them into the trend of industrial civilization.