Q: In what ways did the war promote the development of science and technology?

War is a continuation of politics in another way. The use of weapons for organized and purposeful wars first appeared in the low stage of human barbarism. Engels pointed out: "At this stage, we found a fully developed clan system. . . . It can handle all possible conflicts within the society organized in this way, and external conflicts are resolved through war. " War is not an isolated social phenomenon, and its appearance has a noticeable influence on all aspects of human beings.

One.

The war stimulated science and increased the normal input of the scientific system. Clausewitz wrote in "On War": "War is a violent act that forces the enemy to obey our will." In this kind of violence, whoever has advanced weapons, clever arrangements and sufficient financial resources on both sides will win the war. "Violence uses scientific and technological achievements to arm itself against violence." It is for this reason that war has been promoting the development of science.

The importance of weapons in war is self-evident. In Sun Tzu's Art of War, Henry Jomini believes that one of the conditions of a perfect army is to "maintain the advantages of equipment and weapons as much as possible in both offensive and defensive aspects." He also stressed: "The superiority of weapons may increase the chances of victory in the war. Although the weapon itself cannot win, it is one of the important factors of victory. The development of weapons can change with each passing day, so a country is in a leading position in this respect and can take up a lot of convenience. " The stimulation of the development of weapons to science is the main reason why science is affected by war.

Bows and arrows have long been used. Our country invented the bow and arrow more than 28,000 years ago. Bows and arrows can kill enemies from a long distance, so they have been valued by military strategists since they appeared. The appearance of bow and arrow, Bernard thought, stimulated the development of science in three aspects: "Studying the movement of arrow stimulated dynamics. . . . . Bow drill can be used with only one hand instead of one hand, and can be used to twist the firing rod or drill bit, which is a precedent for continuous rotary motion. The rough sound of bowstring banging may be the origin of stringed instruments. " Many mechanical phenomena have been found in war practice and bow and arrow manufacturing. The Flower King Gong Ji recorded the craftsman's experience in making bows and arrows: "The front is weak, the back is weak, the back is auspicious, the middle is weak, the middle is strong, the feathers are strong, the feathers are rich late, and the feathers are dry." This passage reveals the relationship between the center of gravity and shape of flying objects, gravity and air resistance, and some basic theories of the flight path of flying arrows.

The appearance of bows and arrows attracted people's attention to throwing objects. Ballistics was born after the appearance of artillery. The trebuchet has become the main tool for siege in Alexander's time. Tubular firearms appeared at the end of13rd century14th century. After Nicolo Tartaglia, Galileo made many important mechanical conclusions by studying the trajectory of projectiles. The improvement of projectile firing accuracy led to the invention of rifled gun and rifled, and the production of barrel led to the appearance of Wilkinson barrel boring machine, which promoted the development of precision engineering. The appearance of artillery can promote science, and we can initially see the incentive effect of war on science. No wonder Bernard wrote: "The flight of artillery shells brings people a new concept of mechanics, which has at least the same revolutionary effect. Before the cannon appeared, there could be no modern mechanics. " The appearance of artillery and the flight of artillery shells not only brought about the mechanical revolution, but also played an important role in the generation of electronic computers, the greatest achievement today. During World War II, the US Department of War requested the Department of Electrical Engineering of Moore College of the University of Pennsylvania and the Aberdeen Ballistic Research Laboratory of the Maryland Army to provide six shooting tables. At that time, it took 20 hours to calculate a trajectory with a hand-cranked computer, while a firepower meter needed hundreds of trajectories. To this end, Aberdeen Laboratory employs 200 women, who work day and night, but still can't complete the task. The electronic computer came into being under this urgent need.

The role of weapons in war is very important, but the importance of excellent equipment and instruments can not be ignored. During the Spring and Autumn Period in China, the war was dominated by car wars. Because the quality, firmness and flexibility of vehicles have a great relationship with the outcome of the war, the requirements for vehicle manufacturing were very strict at that time. Under the requirements of the war, craftsmen summed up many methods to meet the requirements. They use the buoyancy of water to check whether the wheel mass distribution is uniform. "Peace is peace." In order to drive fast, it is necessary to reduce the friction between the wheel and the shaft: "I want to be as small as possible." Take nothing, take all the circles. ""if the wheel has been worshipped, then people can't climb it; If the wheel is already awkward, it is at the end of the horse. "This is a simple description of the theory that the resistance is related to the wheel radius when rolling. In modern times, war needs more sophisticated equipment and instruments, and its effectiveness is becoming more and more obvious. Moreover, the appearance of these new equipment and instruments has expanded the influence of war on science and opened up science to one new field after another. This can be seen from the appearance of the radar. The appearance of radar is also the result of war. It is used to find enemy planes in the distance. When Germany began to use radar in the war, it was still in the experimental stage, but it had reached a high level in the war. Because this "secret weapon" can effectively find the target and provide accurate orientation, it can effectively destroy the enemy and save ourselves. 19 16 years, an average of 1 1000 shells shot down an airplane, 19 18 years, and 3,000 shells hit an airplane; After the radar appeared, this number plummeted to 365 rounds at 1945. Because the radar is so powerful, both warring parties have invested a certain amount of power in research. After World War II, the application of microwave electronic technology in various branches of physics flourished, and a brand-new radio astronomy appeared. These are the reasons for radar research.

The appearance of radar led to the development of electronic jamming. The task of electronic jamming is to contain or reduce the working frequency of enemy radio communication, radio navigation, radar and other radio electronic equipment. American military authorities believe that about 450 bombers were saved by radio interference in World War II, which saved 4,500 aircrew members from death. The second world war greatly promoted the development of electronics, and this momentum is endless. Someone in the former Soviet Union claimed: "Under modern conditions, the military strength of any country depends to a great extent on the development level of radio electronics and the utilization of its achievements." Of all the funds allocated by the United States for the development of weapons and equipment, 20%-25% is spent on the research of radio electronics, which shows that the promotion of electronics by war will continue.

When a new weapon comes out, its performance is better than other weapons, which leads another country to step up the development of this weapon. The positive feedback phenomenon in the development of this weapon has undoubtedly accelerated the popularization of science. After the appearance of radar, electronic interference followed. 1942 in order to find the allied bombers, the German high command installed interception aiming radar for night fighters. In order to deal with the radar, the British command used the transmitter installed on the bomber to cast radio interference on it. These jammers make the interception aiming radar on German fighter planes useless over Europe. However, the Germans then tried to get rid of radio interference by changing the radar frequency of fighter planes, and the Allies began to respond by airdropping aluminum boxes from planes. Later, German scholars designed an electronic device, which can distinguish the echo of a moving target in the interference background produced by a slowly moving dipole reflector. These rounds are thrilling, and the delay of a certain measure will bring great losses to our country. In the production of nuclear weapons, we have seen the same phenomenon: the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan on August 6 and 9, 1945, the former Soviet Union successfully tested the first atomic bomb on August 29, 1949, and the United States successfully tested the hydrogen bomb on August 83 152. . . . . The development of this positive feedback is one of the reasons for creating many years of scientific achievements in peacetime in just a few years of war.

The arrangement of battle formation in the war also plays a certain role in the victory or defeat of the war. You can see such scenes in the movies Napoleon of Oztris and Battle of Waterloo. The study of battle formation promotes the development of geometry to some extent. Plato believed that the only practical use of geometry was in war. He wrote in the Republic of China: "The whole arithmetic and calculation use numbers, yes. . . . Therefore, this is the kind of knowledge we are pursuing, which has a dual purpose-military and philosophical; Because a man who fights must learn the skills of counting, otherwise he won't know how to arrange his troops. . . . "The same view also exists in Sun Tzu's Art of War. Sun Wu said: "Sun Tzu's art of war says that once you measure, twice you measure, three times you count, four times you weigh, and five times you win." He also said: "The measure of life, the measure of life, the number of life, the number of life, wins it." He believes that calculation is the basis of using troops, and the victory or defeat of the two armies will be as clear as weighing things after accurate calculation. The infantry phalanx in China during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was composed of three elements: formation, formation and row. The title is the position of the follower, and the column is Wu's formation. Wu is composed of archers, archers, spears, halberds and elders. Why is it composed of five people? Because the ancients thought that the number five would change infinitely, different combinations of bits, columns and rows could discharge many different geometric figures. According to the investigation of relevant data, the area of the position should be calculated according to the terrain before the ancient array, which shows that the war has a certain role in promoting the early geometry. Clausewitz, a military scientist, wrote: "In fortification, we see that geometry dominates almost everything from big to small. In the narrow sense of tactics, that is, in the theory of military movement, geometry is the foundation. In field fortifications, as well as in the theory of determining positions and offensive positions, geometric angles and lines are as dominant as legislators who decide everything. "

In the development of geography, war plays an important role. In Alexander's time, geography developed greatly, which was mostly caused by the need of war. Because of the need of the war, they measured the height of the mountain, the depth of the valley and the width of the sea. On the other hand, due to the convenience brought by the war, they learned more and more about the earth's surface during the war. Alexander took engineers, geographers and surveyors with him on all his expeditions. They mapped the conquered countries and recorded their resources. Aristotle's student Dickel Kush used this knowledge to draw a map of the known world. During the period of Augustus the Great in Rome, due to the need of war, a survey and mapping was organized, led by engineer Agpari, which lasted for ten years. In order to facilitate the March of the Roman army, the nearby mountains, lakes, post stations and distances are marked on it. During the Warring States period in China, geography also developed to a high level because of the war. At that time, the military map already included: "The danger of Xuanyuan, the water with excessive traffic, the location of famous mountains, bronze drums, Jingchuan, Lu Ling and Qiu Fu, lush vegetation, Pu Wei, the distance in the road, the size of battlements, famous cities, abandoned cities and their trapped places." Li Jifu, the prime minister of the Tang Dynasty, wrote 54 volumes of Yuanhe County Records in his later years. According to the political and military needs of the country, he wrote this geography book: "Hold the silence of the world, control the lives of the masses, recover the land to protect the benefits of winning the game, and show the end." From this passage, the relationship between war and geography is initially reflected.

The stimulating effect of war on science is not limited to a small field. The war stimulated many aspects of science, such as mathematics, physics, medicine, electronics and other disciplines. During the Warring States period, due to the war between countries, there were many trauma patients. In this case, surgical medicine has been greatly developed. There are 37 volumes of Waijing lost, which is twice as much as that of Neijing 18. Penicillin was picked up again because of the war; Microbiological research has been serving biological warfare under the impetus of war. In the First World War, chemical weapons developed greatly. World War I also became a chemical war, the synthesis of rubber, and the emergence of Hubble's ammonia production method were all related to this war. At that time, only a dozen effective poisons were found by screening more than 3,000 chemicals. World War II was called the War of Science. Some people joked that the "financial crisis" triggered by American hedge funds in Southeast Asia was "World War III", which shows that the development of war will also promote the progress of economics.

Two.

Science is not only passively stimulated by war. In order to win the war, every country began to organize its own scientific research forces to concentrate on research, and its scale and cost were incomparable before. This shows that science has been developed from passivity in the past under the stimulus of war and has been transformed into active research for the needs of war.

Bernard wrote: "In the last World War, the collaboration of scientists reached an unprecedented level. The problem is not that a few technicians and inventors have applied well-known scientific principles, but that all countries have mobilized their own scientists with the sole purpose of improving the destructive power of modern weapons during the war and designing protective methods to cope with each other's progress in modern weapons. " Wiener, the founder of cybernetics, also described the same situation: "In World War II, the invention of radar and the urgent task of controlling anti-aircraft gun fire mobilized a large number of educated mathematicians and physicists to enter this field. The magic of automatic computers also belongs to this field of thought. Indeed, people have never actively explored this field of thought like today. " The concentration of a large number of scientists is the result of centralized control by the government. Moreover, under the direct intervention of the government, some new societies and research institutions have emerged one after another. The United States established the National Research Council in 19 16. This research society wrote in the report of 1932: ". . . The application of science will play an important role in the war, so scientists will be recruited into national staff and achieve considerable results. " It has been a long time since the government and the country concentrated scientists on research to increase control, but this situation only became obvious in the First and Second World Wars. War is one of the important factors to promote the collectivization of scientific research. In the 1940s,15,000 people participated in the Manhattan project of the United States to develop an atomic bomb. Wiener and some other scientists were recruited in World War II. In the study of specific problems of artillery automatic target tracking, * * * jointly founded a new discipline of cybernetics. This kind of collectivization research caused by wartime is interdisciplinary and cross-departmental, and it has a quick effect, which has played a good demonstration role for later collectivization research.

Three.

The war led to the death of some researchers and promoted the transfer of researchers to some extent. The quantity and quality of scientists can often represent the scientific development level of a country. In this sense, the war has played a certain role in the transfer of the science center. There was a system of "armed migration" in ancient Greece and Rome; When a city-state is conquered, some citizens of the city-state will be moved there. This "armed immigration" system spread Greek science and culture everywhere. Voltaire believed that the brilliant achievement of the Renaissance was the genius creation of the Italians, not the arrival of the fugitives from Constantinople. However, it cannot be denied that in the early Renaissance, when the Byzantine Empire fought against the Turks, it was helped by the Italians. Greek teachers came to Italy, and Italians went to Byzantium to learn Greek, which made preparations for the Italian Renaissance. More importantly, when the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1452, a large number of Greek scholars fled to Italy. The transfer of Greek scholars cannot but be regarded as one of the reasons for the Renaissance. After the Muslims captured Alexandria, most scholars moved to Constantinople, the capital of eastern Rome at that time, adding to the treasure house of cultural knowledge spread to Europe 800 years later. In World War II, the United States also organized death squads to go to the defeated countries to find scientists. The United States captured all the famous scientists in Germany, and a large number of technical experts were brought to the United States, including German rocket expert Feng. Braun

The result of the war will lead to the improvement of a country's prestige and status, thus attracting scientists to conduct research in this country. Xiao Likert analyzed the reasons for the decline of France's scientific status and the rise of Germany's scientific status: "What is related to this transfer is the decrease of French scientists' achievements and the increase of German scientists' achievements, as well as the scientific yearning of other countries to go to Germany instead of France. . . . . "At that time, after the defeat of Napoleon 18 15 in Waterloo, the status of France declined day by day, and most scientists preferred to go to the newly rising Germany rather than France, so that the status of the French science center was replaced by Germany. After the Second World War, the prestige and status of the United States have been continuously improved, and talents from many countries have flowed into the United States. This kind of "scientific development" has attracted more and more attention.

Four.

The role of war has caused certain alienation and deformity in the scientific structure. Science consists of basic research, applied research and development research. The stimulation of early wars on science mainly focused on applied research. For example, the Royal Society studies navigation technology, and Americans are also keen on scientific research related to solving various practical problems. After World War I and World War II, this tendency changed in some countries, and the government began to support pure scientific research. A document in the United States explains why the government supports basic scientific research on a large scale: "One reason for explaining the powerful role of the Federation is to support basic research in various fields directly related to the government's own needs. In this way, the country can maintain strong capabilities in some key areas, such as national defense and health. . . . . "Because of the influence of the war, when the government decided on the purpose of basic research, it focused on basic research. Some war-related disciplines, such as nuclear physics, electronics, space technology and marine science, are important research directions.

During the war, the transition from basic scientific achievements to applied research and development research began to accelerate. The need of war makes the government consider whether the results of every basic research can be transformed into practical technology and applied to war. F Mei Sen wrote: "In this way, the information collected by Alexander's army provided conditions and possibilities for Aristotle's tendency from speculation to empirical investigation. In the future, we will see that after Napoleon conquered some countries, French science also showed a similar tendency from theory to practice. " During the war, some theoretical scientists turned to practical research and became engineers. When Wiener solved the problem of ballistics by mathematical methods, he sighed: "People realized for the first time that we mathematicians would make a difference in the world." Before World War II, Feng. Neumann mainly studies pure mathematics. After the war broke out, he began to turn to applied mathematics. 1940 or so, Feng realized that the world is full of struggles and confrontations, both military and political, so he made an in-depth study of game theory. In order to meet the needs of aircraft design and explosion research, he began to study fluid mechanics. He was involved in the incident in Los Angeles. Alamos' Manhattan project, Taylor's hydrogen bomb research and development team. During the war, physicists Rutherford and Mitten both conducted anti-submarine research. After World War II, applied mathematics has mushroomed. The branches of applied mathematics such as inventory theory, decision theory, linear programming and dynamic programming have been introduced one after another, and the further development of systems engineering and management science is obviously related to the acceleration of the transfer from basic research to applied research.

The influence of the war shortened the research cycle of basic research, applied research and development research. Due to the needs of war, the urgency of military projects will be greater than other projects, and the manpower and funds invested will be greater than other research, which will shorten the "research-production" cycle. In America, John. In a report of 1960, the Washington Institute of Foreign Policy of Hopkins University wrote: "In an era when military strength largely depends on catching up with, equating or surpassing the enemy's technological achievements, the importance of the time required for weapons research, development and production cannot be overemphasized. The service life of aircraft is 14 years, radar is 15 years, nuclear reflection is 10 years, and atomic bomb is 6 years. Compared with other achievements, the application cycle of these projects is shorter.