Historical comparison between Ming and Qing dynasties

Ming Dynasty: 1) Politically: Zhu Yuanzhang abolished the post of prime minister and formed a cabinet in imitation of the Song Dynasty. There were six departments in the Ming Dynasty: officials, households, ceremonies, workers, punishments and soldiers. Dali Temple, Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, Taibu Temple and Split Temple. The secret service agencies include Royal Guards, East Factory and West Factory, and there was also an inner factory during the Wuzong period. The three fairs include Taishi, Taifu and Taibao. Departments mainly refer to the General Political Department and the People's Bank of China. The three external supervisors include imperial academy, Qin and Shanglinyuan. 12 prisons in Inner Mongolia include Li Si Prison, Neigong Prison, Royal Prison, Superintendent Prison, Yuma Prison, Jingu Prison, Shangshan Prison, Shangbao Prison, Yinmao Prison, Zhidian Prison, Shangyi Prison and Du Zhi Prison. 2) Economically, the population of the Ming Dynasty reached 65.438+0.5 billion, the output of crops increased, the commodity economy flourished unprecedentedly, and overseas trade flourished. In addition, the Ming Dynasty was not only economically developed, but also had a strong national strength. Ming said, "Our country is in a better position than before, and it has no relatives in Han and Tang Dynasties, no alliance between Song and China, and no brothers' enmity." From the early seven voyages to the West and six trips to Mongolia, to the later anti-Japanese aid and the recovery of Penghu, China's national prestige was demonstrated. The Ming Dynasty was also the only Han Dynasty that did not negotiate with foreign countries or kiss each other. 3) Military aspect: The sources of the army in the early Ming Dynasty included the former soldiers, that is, the so-called conscripts, yuan soldiers, and chartered soldiers, as well as those who were convicted and dismissed, and the most important source was the election, that is, the overlapping troops drawn from the household registration. Besides, there are other ways, such as simple drawing, filling and collecting. In addition, after the mid-Ming dynasty, there were also ways to force people to join the army, but they all belonged to a minority. Generally speaking, the health system is still the most important military system. The system of health centers is to establish health centers in military locations all over the country to station troops. There are 5,600 people in health centers, followed by 1000 households, 100 households, with general flag and small flag. Each health center belongs to the office of the Governor of the Fifth Army and the Ministry of War. Send it from the Ministry of War if something happens, and send it back to the health center if nothing happens. The source of the army is hereditary military households, and each household sends one person to Zhengding Zhiwei as a soldier. Soldiers take turns to guard at the guard station, and the income from wasteland reclamation supplies the needs of the army and generals. Its goal is to raise troops without consuming national financial resources. However, after the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Ming Dynasty, it was gradually unsustainable, the living standards and social status of soldiers became lower and lower, and deserters gradually increased, so armaments were gradually abandoned. Therefore, during the Jiajing period, when dealing with the Japanese rebellion, General Qi Jiguang recruited militia to train in Zhejiang to replace the unbearable guards.

According to records, in the early Ming Dynasty, there were 2 million officers and men stationed all over the country. By the end of the Ming Dynasty, the economic circle around the Yangtze River was dominated by emperors and warlords, and the central finance was in crisis. The Ming government couldn't afford so many troops, and the officers and men who defended the post-Jin in Shanhaiguan were often less than100000. However, according to the notes of missionaries, the number of troops in the Ming Dynasty is still very large, even if all the troops in Europe are added up, there are not as many as those in China. 4) Science and technology: at present, it is one of the top in the world, and has greatly improved in shipbuilding technology, astronomy, medicine, mathematics, agriculture and so on. The early Ming dynasty inherited the scientific and technological advantages of Song and Yuan Dynasties, and the shipbuilding technology was second to none. New progress was made in science and technology in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. There are many scientific works in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, such as Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica, Song's Heavenly Creativeness, Xu Guangqi's Complete Book of Agriculture, Fang Yizhi's Little Knowledge of Physics, Cheng Dawei's Arithmetic Unity, Wu Youxing's Theory of Epidemic Diseases and Xu Xiake's Travel Notes. Almost all of these scientists in Ming Dynasty were famous scholars in Ming Dynasty. 1637 Song explained the generation and spread of sound with modern science in On Qi, Qi and Sound. He believes that sound is produced by the vibration or rapid movement of an object hitting the air and propagates through the air, which is similar to water waves and very similar to modern theory. Fang Yizhi put forward in Introduction to Physics: "If the universe (time) turns to space, there is a universe in the universe, and there is a universe in the universe." The time-space view that time and space cannot exist independently of each other is put forward. The phenomenon of atmospheric refraction is correctly explained in the physical hint. Sun, a folk manufacturer of optical instruments, made dozens of optical instruments such as magnifying glasses and microscopes, and wrote The History of Mirrors. From these perspectives, the science and technology of the Ming Dynasty made many improvements and breakthroughs at that time.

There are also scientific and technological breakthroughs in daily necessities, such as Yu Qian's ode to coal, which shows that coal has become very common in the Ming Dynasty.

The imperial clan of the Ming Dynasty also made great contributions to science and technology. Zhu Zaiyu, Ming Chengzu, correctly put forward the law of twelve averages for the first time in the world, and made many achievements and contributions in mathematics and astronomy. In the early Ming Dynasty, Zhou Wangzhu planted more than 400 kinds of plants in his mansion, and invited a painter to compile these plant drawings into a book called Herbicide, which was very helpful to the people in times of disaster. Herbal Medicine for Disaster Relief records 4 14 kinds of plants, and describes the morphology, origin, habitat, edible parts and eating methods of various plants in detail. It is an important work in the history of biology and a major breakthrough in agriculture in the Ming Dynasty. In the middle and late Ming dynasty, military science and technology also improved, and a large number of new firearms appeared. Western Franks and Red Cannons were soon made and used in China. There are also some specialized works on firearms, such as "Wu Bei Zhi" written by Mao. These firearms played a great role in the fight against Japanese pirates and the Qing Dynasty. There are 132 cloud pictures in "White Ape Offering Three Lights" in the 4th century A.D./kloc-0. These cloud pictures are related to climate change, and most of them conform to the principles of modern meteorology. In Europe, it was not until A.D. 1879 that there were sixteen maps of Zhang Yun.

[Editor] Astronomical Breakthrough List 1383, the Shi Jing Observatory was established in Nanjing for the first time in the Ming Dynasty, which was the first observatory in the Ming Dynasty.

1439, Zhang Yi built the armillary sphere and put it in the capital. According to the theory of the armillary sphere, the armillary sphere is used to display the movement of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere and measure the coordinate difference between the ecliptic and the equator.

1442, the first observatory was established in Beijing in the Ming dynasty.

1607, Li zhizao completed the Honggaitong constitutional map, which was used to introduce astronomical phenomena.

1634, the first astronomical telescope in the history of China was built in the Ming Dynasty, and it was called a tube, which means tube [2]. The astronomical telescope was shaped like a tube.

[Edit] Mathematics and Physics [Edit] Breakthrough List of Mathematics and Physics 1450, Jason Wu completed "Comparison of Nine Algorithms"

1584, Zhu Zaiyu completed "The Essence of Law and Lu".

1592, Cheng Dawei completed "algorithm unification", which is the earliest record of calculating square sum cube by abacus method.

1606, Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci jointly translated The Elements of Geometry.

16 13 years, Li zhizao rewrote the Introduction to Practical Arithmetic by kravis, a European, and the Theory of Arithmetic Unity by Cheng Dawei, a China, and completed Calculating Fingers in the Same Language.

1637, Song put forward a theory similar to that of modern times on the generation and spread of sound. He believes that sound is produced by the rapid movement of air or the vibration of objects, and sound is transmitted through air, which is very similar to modern theory.

In the same year, Fang Yizhi put forward the concept that time and space cannot exist independently [3].

In the same year, Fang Yizhi explained the atmospheric refraction phenomenon [4].

[Editor] Medical [Editor] 1406 medical breakthrough list, compiled Puji Fang, a medical literature on prescriptions, edited by Professor Zhou, Professor Teng Shuo and Chang Chun in Ming Dynasty.

1567, Taiping county, Ningguo prefecture tried the inoculation method to prevent smallpox, which was later introduced to Europe.

1596, Li Shizhen completed Compendium of Materia Medica, China's masterpiece of Materia Medica.

160 1 year, Yang Jizhou completed the masterpiece of acupuncture and moxibustion, which was later edited by Jin Xian.

16 17 years, Chen shigong completed authentic surgery [5], a total of four volumes.

1624, Zhang Jingyue completed Jing Lei, one of Zhang Jingyue's representative works, which is another comprehensive study of Neijing after Tai Su by Yang Shangshan in Sui Dynasty.

164 1 year, Wu Youxing completed the theory of plague, also known as the theory of epidemic fever, which is the first medical work to study acute infectious diseases in China.

[Editor] Agronomy [Editor] Agronomy Breakthrough List 1376, Yu Zongben completed a tree planting book, explaining how to plant trees and the instructions for planting trees.

1406, Zhu Jun completed "Herbs for Disaster Relief", which is a plant atlas. Herbal Medicine for Disaster Relief describes the morphology of plants and shows the general situation of plant classification at that time in Ming Dynasty.

15 1 1 year, corn was planted in the Ming Dynasty.

1547, Ma Yilong completed "On Agriculture".

1582, sweet potato was introduced into Ming dynasty, which made the population begin to climb.

1596, Tu Benjun wrote a book on marine life, Fujian Cuoshu, which described the morphology, living environment, habits and distribution of various aquatic animals along Fujian coast in the Ming Dynasty.

1608, Yu Renhe and Yu Jie cooperated to complete "Yuan Heng Governing Horses", which is the most abundant and widely circulated veterinary work in Ming Dynasty.

16 17, Zhao Pupa Finished Products Factory.

1628, Xu Guangqi completed the book of agricultural administration, which summarized many experiences and technologies of ancient agricultural production in China and quoted more than 300 ancient works and documents.

[Editor] A list of geographical breakthroughs in the field of geography [Editor] was completed at 1425, Zheng He's nautical chart was originally published at 1536 in the Ming Dynasty's "Wu Bei Zhi", and Huang Zhong completed it at.

1565, Hu Zongxian completed the Compilation of Charts for Japan, which mainly recorded the maritime traffic between China and Japan and the anti-Japanese history of Korea.

1639, Gu began to write, and in this year began to search for a large number of historical books, records and other materials.

1640, Xu Hongzu completed Xu Xiake's Travels, which is a famous traveler and geographer in China and records the geographical information of his places.

[Editor] Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

Tiangong Wu Kaitie Treatment Model [Editor] Chemical Breakthrough List 152 1 year, the first oil well in the Ming Dynasty was built in Jiazhou, Sichuan.

1596, thermal recovery technology was invented in Ming dynasty.

1596, Li Shizhen recorded the chemical properties, distillation, evaporation and sublimation of about 276 kinds of inorganic drugs in Compendium of Materia Medica.

1637, "Heavenly Creations" written by Song Dynasty is a comprehensive scientific and technological masterpiece in ancient China. Some people call it an encyclopedia. In Song Dynasty, lead, copper, mercury, sulfur and other elements were regarded as basic substances, and the substances they produced were regarded as biomass, resulting in the concept of quasi-modern chemical elements.

Fang Yizhi invented a method of burning coke. [6]

[Edit] Weapons [Edit] Weapons Breakthrough List 1372, made of spears at the mouth of a bowl. Compared with the hand spear, this spear is heavier, larger in shape and caliber, and must be shot on the wooden frame.

1377 spear, light in shape and small in caliber, can be put into a wooden handle and used in hand, similar to a pistol.

/kloc-bronze ware made in 0/453 is the earliest metal tube-shaped firearm in the world.

1524 Frank cannon, originally imported from Portugal in Europe, was used as an early afterloading smoothbore gun.

1558, made of matchlock gun, which is a firearm fired with matchlock as the ignition device.

1580 Qi Jiguang made its own "homemade steel wheel fire", which is similar to a mine.

5) Culture: Ming culture developed rapidly, especially in literature. Three or four classic works, China Literature-The Journey to the West, The Water Margin and The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, were all written in the Ming Dynasty. In addition, two other famous novels-Peony Pavilion and Jin Ping Mei are also excellent works in this period. At the same time, folk literature flourished, and a number of writers such as Tang Yin, Song Lian, Zhang Dai, Wu and Yuan Hongdao appeared. In philosophy, Wang Yangming's new thought is called "the study of mind", which forms a new wave of thought and helps to shape a new social trend.

Qing Dynasty: 1) Politics: Because the Qing Dynasty was dominated by Manchu, its political system still had many special contents, such as the policy of worshipping Manchu first, the Eight Banners system, the meeting of important ministers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the system of official vacancies to ensure the rule of Manchu. In addition, after the Opium War, due to the influence of western political thoughts and systems, some political systems of modern countries were introduced. Therefore, the political system of the Qing Dynasty is more widely studied than that of the Han, Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties. 2) Economy: The economy of the Qing Dynasty was developed and the population increased greatly-it reached 300 million during the Qianlong period, which made the output of food crops need to be further improved. In the Qing Dynasty, reclamation of wasteland, emigration to frontier areas and promotion of new crops were adopted to increase production. Due to the promotion of domestic and foreign trade, the economy and agriculture are relatively developed [reference 1]. In the handicraft industry, the slave system of craftsmen was changed to the tax service system. Textile and porcelain are the most important industries, with cotton weaving surpassing silk weaving. Porcelain is painted on porcelain tires with enamel, and Jingdezhen in Jiangxi is the center of porcelain. In Qing dynasty, commerce was developed, and it was divided into ten business gangs. Among them, Shanxi merchants and Huizhou merchants dominate China's financial industry, while Fujian merchants and Chaozhou merchants master overseas trade [see 2]. The Qing Dynasty once implemented the policy of sea ban, and it was not until the occupation of Taiwan Province Province that the coastal trade was slightly active, and the currency adopted the dual standard of silver and copper. In the late Kangxi period, in order to prevent rebellion, the policy of banning mines was implemented, which hindered the development of industry and commerce to some extent. 3) Military: Nurhachi is divided into four flags. 16 15 expanded to the Eight Banners, which was the initial establishment of the Eight Banners system. 16 16, Nurhachi said that Khan was independent and established the State of Jin. The so-called Eight Banners system is the unity of military and political affairs and the unity of military and civilian affairs. The flag bearer takes soldiers as his profession and has been a soldier for generations. Become the core of the Qing army. After entering the customs, the Eight Banners Army is unable to station in the newly conquered territory and will be incorporated into the Han army to form professional soldiers. In order to distinguish it from the Eight Banners, it is called green camp with the green flag as the symbol and the battalion as the unit. As for the navy, like all previous dynasties in China, the Qing Dynasty regarded the navy as an assistant to the army. In addition, Manchuria is mainly riding and shooting, and it is not good at water warfare. In the early days of entering the customs, Zheng Chenggong and other maritime anti-Qing forces were often unable to do so. 1636 (ten years of Tiancong), Huang taiji levied the Gurkha department of Manchuria and began to build warships. 165 1 year (eight years of Shunzhi), the coastal provinces along the Yangtze River were ordered to follow the Ming system and set up their own navy, with the same establishment as the army [1]. This is the beginning of the establishment of a naval division. The Yangtze River is the main body of inland river defense, and there are navy divisions along the coast. As for the coastal defense, it was abandoned because of the maritime ban in the early Qing Dynasty and the anti-Qing forces such as Zheng in Taiwan Province Province. Even after the Ming and Zheng dynasties were pacified, they were still affected by the sea ban, and the navy was mainly defensive and lacked offensive warships. During the Kangxi period, the Qing army put down the San Francisco rebellion (1673, 168 1) and went on an expedition to Taiwan Province province (1683), 1652 to 1689,/kloc-. During the Qianlong period, the so-called "peerless martial arts" even appeared, and the military strength of the Qing Dynasty reached its peak. After entering the customs, the Eight Banners enjoyed various political and economic privileges, and were granted the right to farm fields. However, most of the Banners were not allowed to farm and were given food by the state. Children of the Eight Banners are often greedy for pleasure and lack of training. After several generations, they have completely lost their fighting spirit. After the Qianlong dynasty, the corruption of the Eight Banners became more serious. After the corruption of the Eight Banners, green camp was in charge of all wars, and green camp was the main force of the San Francisco rebellion. During the reign of Qianlong Jiaqing and Jiaqing, green camp had more than 600,000 troops and became a national military pillar. However, after the Qianlong period, the domestic peace has been long, and green camp itself has various drawbacks, and its internal corruption is gradually becoming. In addition to the corruption of the Eight Banners green camp, the corrupt official Xiao Shenyang was favored and the military attache was corrupt during the Qianlong period, which also weakened the combat effectiveness of the army. 1795, when the Miao uprising was suppressed, the Qing army still had fighting capacity, but Fu Kang 'an and other Qing army commanders released false good news to enrich themselves. 1796, the rebellion of Sichuan-Chuan Baili Sect broke out, and the regular army was unable to fight. Some generals even slaughtered civilians in exchange for meritorious military service, which led to the repeated expansion of the rebellion. Later, after the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement and the Nian Army were suppressed, the local militia became the military pillar of the Qing Dynasty. After the Opium War, the military strength of the Qing Dynasty was completely weakened. Although the rise of the Westernization Movement promoted the military modernization of the Qing Dynasty, the fiasco of the Sino-Japanese War marked the failure of the Westernization Movement for 30 years. Although the Beiyang Navy, as the main force, is huge in scale, its training and equipment are far from those of the Japanese army. 4) Science and technology: Science and technology in China during the Qing Dynasty.

Kangxi was purely interested in western science and technology, killing people's wisdom and preventing Fan Han from contacting science and technology, and Yongzheng banned religion. Coupled with the later closed door, advanced western science could not be introduced into China, and the opportunity for China and the West to learn from each other was lost. However, the literary inquisition in the Qing Dynasty and the eight-part essay extending the imperial examination in the Ming Dynasty gradually made China science lose its leading position in the world. After more than 30 years of planning and mapping, Kangxi made the Imperial Map. This map is "not only the best map in Asia at that time, but also better and more accurate than all the maps in Europe at that time" [18]. During the Qianlong period, Minggatu and others were sent to Xinjiang and other places for surveying and mapping twice. Finally, according to the panorama of the Forbidden City and the new surveying and mapping data, the panorama of the Forbidden City in Ganlong was made. These two pictures are still of great reference value.

During the Qianlong period, the official revised 90 volumes of Jin Jian of Medical Zong, collected many new cheats and experience prescriptions, and made many textual researches on synopsis of the golden chamber and treatise on febrile diseases, which is an important work to introduce the clinical experience of traditional Chinese medicine. Wang Qingren's book Correcting Mistakes in Medical Forest emphasized the importance of anatomical knowledge to medical treatment, and questioned the records of organs in ancient books. He drew 25 kinds of "My Eyes Corrected Visceral Diagram" through the anatomical study of cadaver viscera, which corrected some mistakes of predecessors. Wang Xichan is the author of more than a dozen astronomical works, such as The New Law of Xiao 'an and The Interpretation of Five Elements. , affirmed the advanced places of western calendars, and pointed out many shortcomings and mistakes. He also put forward some pertinent opinions on the algorithm of solar eclipse, the application of astronomical data, the length of tropical year, and the precession constant, which promoted the development of calendar arithmetic in China. Mei Wending sorted out and expounded China's ancient almanac, and also studied and introduced western science. There are 86 books on astronomy, calendars and mathematics. His book General Theory of Chinese and Western Mathematics summarized almost all the mathematical knowledge in the world at that time and reached the highest level of mathematical research in China at that time. In the "Equation Theory" part of the book, the originality of China's ancient equation is expounded, and it is pointed out that this algorithm is not available in the West. The achievement of China's ancient algorithm is also proved by Pythagorean metric and nine-number ancient preservation. In the sections of "block measurement" and "geometric correction", the western sphericity is introduced, and the western solid geometry is discussed and developed. In the preparation, calculation and proportional number solution, the western logarithm and Galileo's proportional gauge are explained and introduced. Mingatou is the author of the four-volume Method of Secant Circle Density and Efficiency. Because the three methods of secant circle (circle diameter is circumference, solitary back is sine and chord back is normal vector) imported from Europe at that time only have formulas, but there is no method to prove them, China created three formulas to prove them by secant circle connection ratio method, and further created a series of new formulas, such as "arc back is chord", "chord back is chord" and "normal vector of arc back", which were all solved by analytical methods. Gong Zhenlin initiated the iron mold casting method in 184 1 and wrote the iron mold casting diagram, which is one of the earliest scientific and technological documents in the world. Lie independently invented logarithmic calculus and put forward Lie identities in combinatorial identities. 1872 published the "look-up method", which is China's earliest theory of prime numbers. 4) Culture: Due to special historical reasons, the anti-feudal thought in this period is the biggest feature of Qing culture and the mainstream of Qing culture. The anti-feudal thought in this period contains obvious materialistic thought. At this time, novels, plays, paintings and other aspects have been innovated and developed on the basis of China's traditional literature and art, and they are unique in the world literary world. Qing Dynasty was the last feudal dynasty in China and the last important stage in the history of ancient literature. Poetry, ci, prose, novels and operas have all made important achievements. It is generally believed that the development of ancient literature in China ended before the Opium War (1840). After the Opium War, the stage of modern literature began. In the process of unifying China, the Qing rulers suppressed the peasant rebels headed by Li Zicheng and Zhang, wiped out the Nanming regime and brutally slaughtered the rebellious Han people. In order to consolidate the rule, the Qing dynasty banned the association of intellectuals and promoted the literary inquisition. On the surface, six cabinet and Manchu officials were reinstated respectively. In fact, the power was in the hands of the Manchu king and finally ruled by the emperor, forming a feudal autocracy with racial discrimination. The exploitation system of the domestic landlord class still exists, and there was a large-scale "enclosure" action by the court in the early days to plunder the land of the Han people. All these have formed sharp ethnic and class contradictions between the rulers and the Han nationality and the people of all ethnic groups. During the period of Yongzheng and Qianlong, the poets in this period succumbed to the restraint pressure of the imperial court and were confused by the apparent peace of the "prosperous times", which continued the tendency in the later period of Kangxi, and the content reflecting social contradictions in their creations was weak. However, poetry theory and poetry schools are quite active. In prose, Tongcheng School, represented by Fang Bao, Liu Dakui and Yao Nai, appeared. Fang Bao lectures, and Yao Nai stresses the rigidity and softness of yin and yang. Insisting on Confucian orthodoxy in thought, his style was mainly halal and elegant, which adapted to the political background at that time. Their concise and graceful works have their own characteristics, but they lack grandeur and sense of scale. There were also many parallel prose writers in this period: Hu Tianyou, Yuan Mei, Wu Xiqi, Kong Guangsen and others came down in one continuous line with the Six Dynasties, Tang and Song Dynasties, and won by talent; , Hong, Shao and others followed the example of Wei and Jin dynasties and won by elegance. The Zhejiang School, represented by Li E, has the greatest influence in ci. Literary masterpiece The Scholars

The novels of this period exude unique brilliance, namely Wu's The Scholars and Cao Xueqin's A Dream of Red Mansions. From the early years of Jiaqing to the twenty years before the Daoguang Opium War (1796 ~ 1840), social contradictions developed continuously and became more acute. The prosperous times of Qing Dynasty tended to decline, and so did the feudal society in China. The people's struggle against poverty intensified, and large-scale uprisings such as Anbaili and Tianli broke out. The literati at that time, seeing the gradual disillusionment of the "prosperous times", could not escape the shackles of thought and were in the dreary and suffocating air on the eve of the storm. There have been some minor changes in the literary world, but the vigorous weather is not as good as the previous paragraph.