National Academy of Sciences? Everybody come in ~ ~

National Academy of Sciences

Honorary scientific and government advisory bodies in the United States. English abbreviation NAS. 1863 was established on March 3rd by a congressional decree signed by President Lincoln. It is not a government department, but a non-governmental, non-profit and honorary autonomous organization of scientists, and there is no research institution below. As an executive body, the National Research Council (NRC) is usually authorized by a special committee of the US Congress or proposed by the federal government. The NRC Management Committee determines the research projects undertaken on contemporary scientific and technological issues, and organizes experts from all over the country, such as the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering and the Medical Research Institute, to form special committees and groups for research and defense.

The National Academy of Sciences provides mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, geophysics, biochemistry, cell and developmental biology, physiology, neurobiology, botany, genetics, population biology, evolution and ecology, engineering, applied biology, applied physics and mathematical science, medical genetics, hematology and oncology, medical physiology, endocrinology and metabolism, medical microbiology and immunology, anthropology and psychology. It belongs to five research groups: mathematical science, biological science, applied and engineering science, medical science and social science.

The National Academy of Sciences is composed of academicians, honorary academicians and foreign unofficial academicians. Foreign unofficial academicians can become academicians if they acquire American citizenship. The annual meeting is held in Washington every April. The National Academy of Sciences of the United States stipulates that the total number of newly elected academicians is up to 60 each year, and the maximum number of foreign unofficial academicians is 15.

For most American scientists, the highest honor they can get, besides the Nobel Prize, is to be elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS).

American academician is an honorary title. Except for being able to publish scientific papers freely in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) of NAS, other material benefits are almost zero. This is completely different from the fact that once an academician of China is elected, he will gain both fame and fortune. NAS was established by the US Congress in 1863, and has a history of 140 years. 1863 is the height of the American Civil War. How did Congress think of legislating to establish such a scientific organization? This is a major case in the history of American science development. To clarify the ins and outs of this case, we need to understand the scientific research status and level in the United States at that time. This is of great practical significance for the scientific development of China.

One or three major scientific groups

For real scientists, honor and interest are the biggest motivation to promote their scientific research. Different from other fields of human social activities, the evaluation of scientific research results requires strong professional knowledge. Therefore, only the recognition and reward of scientific authority is meaningful to scientists. Therefore, one of the purposes of establishing a group of scientists is to establish scientific authority and then award honors to those who have contributed to science. Another purpose of the group of scientists is to promote academic exchanges and cooperation among scientists.

Before the establishment of NAS, there were three famous organizations of scientists in the United States, which played a very important role in promoting the development of American science and culture. Among these three organizations, the American Scholars Association is the earliest.

"(American Philosophical Society, APS) was founded in Philadelphia on 1743 by Benjamin Franklin, a famous American scientist and national activist. According to Franklin's vision, the role of APS is to "promote useful science" in British North American colonies. These useful sciences at that time included medicine, botany, mathematics, chemistry, machinery, geography and other disciplines. 1769, APS has more than 250 members. 177 1 year, APS published the first issue of the newsletter of the Society, introducing the astronomical observation records of its members. This exchange immediately made the Franklin Institute famous in Europe. Therefore, APS is the earliest scholar organization in the United States to gain international reputation.

So far, more than 200 APS members have won the Nobel Prize. At present, APS has 852 members in the world, of which 7 17 are American residents (citizens or permanent residents). It should be pointed out that some people translated APS into "American Philosophical Society", which is wrong. In English, although philosophy and the word "philosophy" have the same root, its actual meaning is "thinking and learning". APS actually includes all fields of science and art, except philosophy. (http://www.amphilsoc.org/). In fact, the English name of "American Philosophical Association" is American Philosophical Association, which is an organization of American philosophers.

The reputation of the Franklin Institute in Europe attracted the attention of john adams, who was then negotiating in Europe on behalf of the United States. Together with john hancock and others, he founded the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston in 1780. John adams, an alumnus of Harvard University, is the first vice president and the second president of the United States. At that time, there were two political, economic and cultural centers in the United States, Boston and Philadelphia, located in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania colonies respectively. They originated from different sects of British immigrants, and competition with each other is inevitable. The original 60 members of American College of Arts and Sciences were mainly professors from Harvard University, and later included American presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, james madison and john quincy adams, as well as celebrities such as Benjamin Franklin and alexander hamilton. At that time, the purpose of American College of Arts and Sciences was to provide a platform for some scholars, government members and business leaders to communicate with each other and let science serve the newly established Republic of China. At present, the organization has about 3,700 full members (fellow) and about 600 foreign honorary members.

(http://www.amacad.org/).

Before the Civil War, the national organization of American scientists was the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), which originated from the American Association of Geologists. AAAS is a mass organization, founded in 1848, which imitates the British Association for the Advancement of Science in organizational form. AAAS aims to expand the influence of science on American society and make science develop in a more "systematic direction" in the United States. At the beginning of AAAS, there were more than 400 members, and after 6 years, the total number of members exceeded 1000. AAAS is the grassroots organization of scientists, so it is more dynamic. It actively requested the federal government to fund scientists' research and formally established standards of weights and measures.

It also requires the state government to fund geographical surveys. As early as 1850, a sub-committee of AAAS was responsible for drafting scientific ethics regulations. Although AAAS members are not honorary members, it is a great honor to be selected as fellow of this association. Another reason why AAAS is famous is that he is the owner of the famous publication Science. AAAS has more than 654.38 million+members, so long as they are willing to pay the membership fee, they can join. (http://www.aaas.org/).

In addition to the three groups of scientists mentioned above, there is also a research institution in the United States that has played an important role in the establishment and development of NAS. This is the famous Smithsonian Institution. The Smithsonian Institution is the earliest national institution engaged in scientific research in the United States, which was founded in 1846. Its origin is that a British rich man named James Smithson donated an inheritance worth about $650,000 to the US government, asking the US government to establish an institution called the SmithsonianInstitution in Washington, D.C., in order to "increase and spread knowledge among mankind". 1836, after heated discussion, the US Congress voted to accept this heritage. Although many people interpret the Smithsonian's will as that he wants to build a university, according to the US Constitution, the federal government has no right to engage in higher education (the original intention of the Constitution is that matters not mentioned in the Constitution belong to the state government, and higher education is not mentioned in the Constitution), so the United States built the Smithsonian Institute into an independent scientific research institution similar to a museum on 1846, mainly including natural history museums and museums. (http://www.si.edu/). The first president of the Smithsonian Institution was joseph henry, who was the most famous scientist in19th century.

Two or three main characters

It should be pointed out that before the Civil War, the main body of American academic circles, especially universities, was the humanities, and the status of scientists was not high. Joseph henry wrote in 184 1: Although there are more people interested in popular science in the United States than in other countries in the world, almost no one is engaged in groundbreaking scientific research. 1In the 1940s, Yale University and Harvard University successively established science colleges, but in these two schools, not only the salaries of professors in science colleges are lower than those in genuine colleges, but also the admission standards and graduation standards of students are far lower than those in genuine colleges. The first doctor of science degree in the United States (actually called Ph.D) was born in the School of Science of Yale University in 186 1.

At that time, there were three leading figures in the American scientific community, namely, joseph henry, the first president of the Smithsonian Institution, Alexander Dallas Bache, director of the US Federal Coast Survey, and Louis Agassiz, a professor of "natural philosophy" at Harvard University. Among these three people, Henry has the highest academic achievement and is the most influential scientist in America in the19th century. Henry has no higher education, he is self-taught. He discovered electromagnetic induction in 1828- 183 1 year, one or two years earlier than the British scientist Faraday. However, because Henry failed to publish the research results in time, his achievements were not recognized by Europeans. The cold reception in Europe, coupled with the contradiction between Moore's inventor of the telegraph in the United States, made Henry pay more attention to improving the status of American scientists and the overall research level. Henry once said that in today's America, pseudoscience is easier to get attention and reward than real science. From 65438 to 0832, Henry became a professor at New Jersey College (the predecessor of Princeton University). 1835 was elected as an APS member. Henry served as chairman of AAAS on 1849.

Henry is very happy to be a professor at New Jersey College. The University of Virginia once hired him with the highest salary of an American professor at that time, but it ended in failure. In addition, both the University of Pennsylvania and Harvard University expressed their willingness to hire him. So, why did he go to Washington to be the president of the Smithsonian Institution and deal with politicians all day? It is said that this is the result highly recommended by Bach. Bach asked Henry to "put the great design of American science into practice".

Bach graduated from West Point Military Academy. At that time, American universities rarely taught systematic scientific knowledge, and West Point Military Academy was the most important institution to train engineers and technicians in the United States, so its graduates were generally well trained in science. Although Bach has no scientific achievements worth mentioning, he has two major capitals. First, his family background is prominent. He is the great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, and his grandfather is the US Treasury Secretary.

Second, Bach's communication and organizational skills are extremely strong. 1828, Bach, who was only 22 years old and graduated from West Point Military Academy, became a professor of natural philosophy (that is, science) at the University of Pennsylvania. The next year, he became a member of APS. Later, Bach was hired as the principal of a college and served as the principal of a high school. 1843, Bach became the director of the US Coast Survey. After the Smithsonian Institution was founded, he was a member of the board of directors. 1850, Bach became the chairman of AAAS.

In addition to his close relationship with Henry, Bach also influenced the American scientific community through his close contact with a group of Harvard scientists. Among these Harvard scientists, Agassi is the most famous.

Agassi, a Swiss, studied under Ye Wei, the most famous biological home in Europe at that time. At that time, science was not classified as it is now, so Agassi's research scope was very extensive, mainly focusing on fish taxonomy, and also engaged in archaeology, systematics and glaciology. His "sideline" also won him the reputation of "the father of glaciology". From 65438 to 0846, Agassi went to the New World for a two-year scientific investigation with the support of the King of Prussia, and gave lectures in Boston. Two years later, Agassi was hired as a professor by Harvard University. Agassi found that at that time, American scientific knowledge mainly came from Britain, and even scientific discoveries in continental Europe had to go through the "English-Italian Strait" to reach the United States. This made him decide to liberate American scientists from the guardianship of the British and improve their self-confidence. 1849, Agassi wrote in a letter to a friend that there will be no truly independent intellectuals in the United States before it has scientific authority, no matter how free it is politically. 186 1 year, Agassi became an American citizen. Agassi's greatest legacy to Harvard University is the museum of comparative zoology that he personally established. Agassi was one of the main figures who established the tradition of American scientific research, and had a great influence on the development of American science, especially the science education of Harvard University.

From "Beggar of Science" to American Academician

So, how was the National Academy of Sciences established? Similar to Agassi's view that the United States needs scientific authority, Bach also advocates the establishment of an organization of scientists, whose authority is established by the government. At the AAAS annual meeting of 185 1, Bach said that the rapid development and wide application of science make the decision-making of government departments inevitably need scientific knowledge. Therefore, the US government should set up an organization to "guide public action" in scientific affairs. 1858, Agassi even designed the organizational framework of this institution in a private letter, and its central principle was to set up an academy of sciences composed of outstanding figures in the scientific community.

In fact, APS and American College of Arts and Sciences were recognized as authoritative academic groups at that time and now. From the point of view of establishing academic authority, it is not necessary to build another academy of sciences besides them. However, the outbreak of 186 1 civil war created an opportunity for the birth of the Academy of Sciences. At that time, many people contributed their newly invented weapon designs to the government, and the scientific nature and feasibility of these inventions needed expert evaluation. Henry suggested that the Admiralty set up an advisory body to review these inventions and test new weapons. 1863 In February, the Navy approved Henry's plan and established a "permanent committee", the main members of which included Henry, Bach and Major General Davis.

Almost at the same time as the "Standing Committee" of the Admiralty was established, Agassi, Bach and two other Harvard professors drafted a proposal, which was submitted to Congress by Massachusetts Senator henry wilson on February 20th. On March 3, the day before the recess of Congress, the bill was passed in the House and Senate without any debate, and was signed by President Lincoln on the same day. This bill is "the merger bill of the National Academy of Sciences". The National Academy of Sciences was legally established.

The National Academy of Sciences Establishment Act is very short, with only three clauses. First, 50 founding members of NAS were identified. Article 2 stipulates that the number of NAS members is 50, and new members need to be created after vacancies appear; NAS has the right to formulate its own rules and regulations and elect new members. The most important thing is article 3, which stipulates that NAS holds a general meeting once a year. Any government department should conduct "investigation, inspection and experiment" and make a report when necessary. The article also stipulates that NAS can only get the direct expenses of these "investigations, inspections and experiments" from the government, but can't get any remuneration for these services from the federal government. Some people commented that it is the third article that gives the reason for the establishment of NAS, that is, to provide services to the government when it is needed by government departments.

As I said at the beginning of this article, the establishment of NAS is a major case in the history of American science development. Why do you say that? There are at least two reasons. First, Bach and Agassi did it behind Henry's back. Henry knows nothing about it. Only after the proposal was sent to Congress did Henry hear the news of the coastal survey. Henry later said that he had no objection because he thought the proposal could not become law. Second, among the 50 founding members of NAS, some are members of the Admiralty or West Point Military Academy, Bach's friends, unknown scientists, or even scientists at all. But some outstanding scientists were not called in at that time. What is even more strange is that many of these 50 members don't even know that they have become the first batch of academicians in the United States. The names of two academicians were misspelled in the motion. All these make the establishment of NAS widely criticized. NAS is called "InstantAcademy", "Mutual Admiration Society" and "American Royal Society". Not only was there no honor in the first few years, but its existence also became a problem.

Henry was very dissatisfied with the establishment of NAS. He complained in his letter that I knew nothing about the establishment of this list. ..... I'm not satisfied with the way this list is made. It includes some names that should not be included, while some names that should be included are not written in. ..... I don't think one or two people have the moral right to choose who will be a member of the National Academy of Sciences in this country, and then use political tricks to get legislation from Congress.

At least two of the 50 founding academicians simply refused to accept this honor. Others accepted the title of academician, but refused to participate in NAS activities. Those scientists who didn't get into NAS are even angrier. John W. draper, a chemist at new york University, wrote a strongly worded letter of protest to Henry.

This De Lei Bai later tried to set up an organization similar to NAS to compete with it. In addition to draper, George P Bond, director of Harvard Observatory, and Elias loomis, a physicist at Yale University, are all first-class scientists in the United States, but they failed to become the first batch of academicians. The establishment of NAS did not have much influence on public opinion. Most people don't know that this happened. Since the inaugural meeting of NAS was held in new york, The New York Times once published an editorial criticizing the establishment process of NAS. The editorial wrote, "Although there are few people who should be eliminated from its list of 50 people, many top scientists in China are not among them. We wish this college all the best and hope that its leaders can purify this organization and improve their level in the future. " It is quite harsh criticism to let an academic organization "purify" itself in its editorial.

The inaugural meeting of NAS was held in new york University on April 22-24, 1863. A total of 32 academicians attended the first day of the meeting, less than two thirds of the total. The next day, there were 27 participants left. William barton rogers, the founder of MIT, attended the meeting and wrote a reminiscence article. In this article, Rogers clearly opposes the establishment of NAS.

William Barton William barton rogers said that he learned about the existence of NAS and his election through a friend in Washington. Rogers lives in Boston, and the main founder of NAS (Agassi and other Harvard professors) is just across the river from him, but he is kept in the dark. Rogers was very dissatisfied with this, calling the establishment of NAS a "conspiracy". In English, "Scheme" is a word with obvious derogatory meaning, and now it is used to refer to the deception of merchants. Rogers also used many derogatory terms and expressions in this memoir. For example, the list of academicians was "concocted" (concocted), and some people's speeches at the conference were "premature boasting" (immature arrogance), and so on. Rogers' second dissatisfaction is that he found that some outstanding American scientists did not become academicians, and many people who became academicians made little or no contribution to science. Rogers believes that this NAS is actually an extension of the "old gang". ("It's just the expansion of the old group"). Who do you mean by "those old guys"? Of course, it means "science beggar" It turns out that since 1853, a group of scientists in Boston, mainly professors from Harvard University, often get together and they laugh at themselves as "scientific Lazzaroni". The leaders of "scientific beggars" are Agassi and Bach.

Rogers later heard that his own name was not on the initial list of NAS. Later, through the efforts of his friends, he was fortunate to become the first academician in the United States. Rogers' dissatisfaction with NAS was revealed in his speech at the conference. After listing the names of many neglected scientists, he said: "In this group representing national science, the absence of our brothers and colleagues is a sad mistake, if not a serious one. I feel that when these people are excluded, I have no right to stay here. Similarly, gentlemen, you should also understand that you are not qualified to stay here. "

Agassi, the main sponsor of NAS, later admitted that the establishment of NAS started on a wrong track.

The inclination of the private service building

After the establishment of NAS, Bach served as its chairman until his death in 1867. In his will, Bach instructed to donate all his inheritance to NAS after his wife died. The property has been transferred to the name of NAS on 1872, with a total amount exceeding USD 40,000. Bach not only gave birth to NAS, but also his legacy is an important resource for the existence of NAS, so it is not too much to call Bach "the father of NAS".

The chairman of NAS vacated by Bach was replaced by Henry. Although Henry was dissatisfied with the establishment of NAS, he promised his sick old friend Bach that NAS would live. Henry wants to "try his best to give this organization a correct direction". The right direction is to turn NAS into a pure honor group.

According to the founding act of NAS, the main function of NAS is to serve as the scientific adviser of the government, so its existence value is the need of the government. During Bach's three or four years as chairman, NAS did receive many projects from the government. For example, in the first year, it received ten consultations from the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of the Navy and other government departments.

At that time, NAS mainly dealt with these topics by consulting literature or providing solutions according to its existing knowledge, and almost did not engage in any experimental research, so it did not show the characteristics of NAS. Slowly, the government turned to NAS for help less and less. About ten years after Bach's death, the government seems to have forgotten the status of NAS as a scientific consultant and almost never consulted them.

Secondly, in addition to being a scientific adviser to the government, another thing stipulated in the NAS Establishment Law is that it should hold an annual meeting. As mentioned earlier, there were only 32 participants in the inaugural meeting of the National Academy of Sciences. On the first day of the first annual meeting of NAS held in the second year (1864), only 19 academicians attended the meeting, including those who were late, a total of 28 people attended the meeting. Only 2 1 person attended the second meeting this year. By 1865, there are at least 8 academicians attending the annual meeting.

Thirdly, due to the contradiction caused by the establishment of NAS in American scientific community, the function and nature of this organization are unclear. Some people can't attend the annual meeting because of economic reasons, and academicians begin to resign. Except for the two people who initially refused to join NAS, the first academician who quit NAS appeared in 1865, 1866, four in 1867 and four in 1869. In other words, in the six years after the establishment of NAS, the number of people who voluntarily quit NAS exceeded a quarter of the original total.

The disappearance of government consultation and the withdrawal of a large number of academicians make NAS face a life-and-death crisis around 1869. Someone inside NAS suggested dissolving this organization, while someone outside NAS wanted to set up an opponent organization.

Henry kept his promise to Bach and tried his best to protect the organization.

One of his most important decisions is to ask Congress to amend the NAS establishment bill and cancel the number of academicians.

1870, Congress amended this bill and cancelled the 50 quota restrictions of NAS. 1872 NAS elected 25 new members, 1873 10, and 27 academicians will be elected in the next five years. The increase of academicians reduces the contradiction between scientists, and also makes the existence of confrontation organizations outside the hospital meaningless. Draper Academy of Sciences only existed for a year or two, and then disappeared. He and his son were elected as NAS academicians on 1877.

NAS has almost completely become an honorary scientist group in Henry's hands. Being elected as an academician shows that a person has made a certain contribution to science, that's all. As for the reduction in the number of projects handed over by the government, Henry is not very concerned. /kloc-at the end of 0/9th century, someone joked that being elected as an academician of NAS means having a meeting once a year, listening to several reports, having a big meal and then going home. During World War I, NAS established the National Research Council (NRC), which inherited the function of "National Science Advisor" of the Academy of Sciences. Another feature of NRC is to change NAS, which passively waits for government consultation, into the main one to provide services and suggestions to the government.

So, is becoming an academician of NAS the highest honor that American scientists can get? This is a matter of opinion. At present, NAS has nearly 2000 members. Together with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the Institute of Medicine, the total number of academicians in the United States is close to 6,000. Since the United States has the strongest scientific strength in the world, this figure should be said to be reasonable. However, compared with hundreds of APS members, American academicians are obviously not as picky as APS members. Only from this perspective, being able to enter APS should be regarded as a higher honor than an academician.