Economics: Please briefly describe Keynes's theory of moderate inflation.

The complete system of Marxist political economy should include two parts, one is the national economics that studies a country's domestic market and economic operation mode, and the other is the world economics that studies the world market and economic operation mode. Das Kapital expounds the national economics part of Marxist political economy. We say that the theory of labor value is the theoretical cornerstone of Marxist political economy, usually in this part. The part of world economics in Marx's political economy is based on international axiology, so we call international axiology the second cornerstone of Marx's political economy. No matter from the integrity of the theoretical system of Marxist political economy or the practical needs of world economic development, the newly compiled textbook of Marxist political economy should include the part of world economics that studies the world market economy based on the international value theory. First, the theoretical system of political economy that Marx planned to write. In the past, Marxist political economy textbooks usually included two parts. First, the theoretical system expounded by Marx in Das Kapital is regarded as the capitalist part of political economy, and the theoretical achievements of studying socialist economy with Marx's theories and methods are regarded as the socialist part of political economy, which is often regarded as the extension and development of Marxist economics. When writing a new textbook of Marxist political economy, we should first consider two questions: first, in Marx's eyes, what is the complete system of his political economy theory; Second, how to use Marx's standpoint, viewpoint and method to study contemporary economic problems and develop Marxist political economy with the development of history. In fact, many people know the complete system of political economy in Marx's eyes. Anyone who studies Marxist economics knows that before the writing of Das Kapital, Marx had a "six-volume plan" for the research and writing of his own political economy theory. The first volume of das Kapital was published in 1867. Marx's research on political economy began in the early 1940s of 19, and by the mid-1950s, Marx's theoretical system of political economy was basically formed. 1857 In August, Marx first put forward his theoretical system and writing plan of political economy, namely "five plans", in the third section of "Introduction" of Economic Manuscripts. He wrote: "Obviously, it should be divided into such provisions: (1) general abstract provisions, so they more or less belong to all social forms, but in the above sense. (2) the category that constitutes the internal structure of bourgeois society and becomes the basic class foundation. Capital, wage labor, land ownership. Their interrelationships. Cities and villages. Three social classes. The exchange between them. Circulation. Credit business (private credit). (3) the national form of bourgeois society. As far as it is concerned. "unproductive" class. Taxes. National debt. Public credit. Population. Colony. Emigrate abroad. (4) International relations of production. International division of labor. International exchange. Output and input. Exchange rate. (5) World market and crisis. " This is the first time that Marx mentioned his complete research and writing plan. Obviously, the fourth article "International Relations of Production" and the fifth article "World Market and Crisis" clearly show that Marx brought international economic relations and world market into his theoretical system of political economy and writing plan. Although the "Five-Article Plan" has been revised in detail three times before and after, what remains unchanged is that international economic relations and the world market are part of his theoretical system of political economy. 1858 In February, Marx clearly put forward his "six-volume plan" for political economy writing for the first time in his letter to Lasalle: "All works are divided into six volumes: (1) Das Kapital (including some introductory chapters); (2) real estate; (3) wage labor; (4) country; (5) international trade; (6) World market. " (2) 1859, Marx officially announced his "six-volume plan" to the public for the first time in the preface of the first volume of Critique of Political Economy. He wrote: "I examine the bourgeois economic system in the following order: capital, land ownership, wage labor;" Country, foreign trade, world market. Under the first three items, I study the economic life of the three classes divided in modern bourgeois society; The interconnection of the other three items is clear at a glance. " Obviously, the "six-volume plan" is an organic whole of Marx's theoretical system of political economy and is closely related in logic. In this system, Marx took "capital", the most abstract and essential economic category, as the logical starting point of his research, followed the principle of the unity of logic and history, and made an overall investigation of capitalist society according to the analytical methods from abstract to concrete and from simple to complex. It must be noted that Marx divided these six volumes into two parts with semicolons. The first three volumes of Capital, Land Ownership and Wage Labor focus on the social relations and their economic categories among the three classes of capitalist society, namely capitalists, landowners and working class, while the last three volumes of State, Foreign Trade and World Market focus on the international economic relations and world markets formed by the interconnection of countries all over the world. Therefore, Marx always regards the investigation of international economic relations and the world market as an important part of his theoretical system of political economy. Here we should pay special attention to the logical relationship between the first three volumes and the last three volumes. The last three volumes of Marx's Six-Volume Plan are Country, Foreign Trade and World Market. The fourth volume "Country" studies the generalization of bourgeois society in the form of a country, that is, the sum of capitalist relations of production in China, or "producer country". Here, the three classes learned in the first three volumes are combined into an organic whole, which is summarized by "country". At the same time, the fourth volume "Country" is the logical starting point for studying the fifth volume "Foreign Trade" and the sixth volume "World Market". In foreign trade, the development of logic has risen to a higher level, studying the economic relations between countries as various actors, that is, the foreign economic relations that occur when "producing countries" cross a country's borders, including international division of labor, international exchange, capital input and output, exchange rate and so on. Then, in World Market, logic is further developed to connect all capitalist countries into a unified economic whole. In the world market, the capitalist relations of production in various countries have developed into "relations between producing countries". Therefore, in the last three volumes, Marx also studied the generalization of capitalist relations of production in national form and its overall development in the world market through foreign trade according to the development of logic and history, from abstract to concrete. In Marx's theoretical system, the world market is the logical result of the development of capitalist relations of production. At the same time, it must be noted that Marx has different arrangements for the length of the two major parts before and after these six volumes. In his letter to La Salle on March 1858+0 1, he wrote: "The book will be divided into six volumes, but I am not going to discuss each volume with the same details; On the contrary, in the last three volumes, I only intend to make some basic explanations, while the first three volumes are about basic economic principles, and sometimes it may be inevitable to make detailed explanations. " ⑥ This is because Marx believes that "capital", "land ownership" and "wage labor" are the basic and essential characteristics of capitalist mode of production, and the connotations of these economic categories and their mutual relations are the "essence" of political economy, which must be discussed in detail. Only by deeply understanding these most essential and abstract economic categories can we study other specific and complex economic categories such as "country", "foreign trade" and "world market". In addition, in the era of Marx's life, the world market, as the sum of capitalist relations of production, is still in the primary stage of development. The real world market has not been finally formed, and internal contradictions have not been fully developed. Therefore, Marx himself "only intends to make some basic explanations", but he believes that "it is easy for others to discuss on the basis of what has been laid." ⑦ The first volume of Das Kapital published in1867 and the second and third volumes of Das Kapital edited and published by Engels later evolved from the first chapter of the first volume of six volumes, but in Das Kapital, Marx also involved and discussed six volumes to some extent. Marx always regards international economic relations and world market economy theory as an important part of his political economy theory system and regards it as a "possible sequel" to Das Kapital. He believes that "the world market is not only the premise of capitalist production, but also the result of capitalist production." Pet-name ruby "capitalist mode of production can only be fully developed in the world market". Attending it is a pity that Marx himself had no time to complete his grand political economy research and writing plan, and could not personally establish his theoretical system of world market economy. Second, the international value theory is the second cornerstone of Marxist political economy. In Marx's "six-volume plan", the first three volumes are based on a country's capitalist mode of production, while the last three volumes break through national boundaries and examine the economic relations formed by countries in the world market. Therefore, it can be considered that Marx's political economy system is mainly composed of two parts: one is national economics with the main content of studying a country's economic operation, and the other is world economics with the main content of studying the world market. These are two relatively independent and interrelated organic components in the theoretical system of Marxist political economy. Of course, the national economics mentioned here refers not only to capitalist national economics, but also to socialist national economics, that is, the socialist part of Marxist political economy. Undoubtedly, in the national economics part of Marxist political economy, its theoretical cornerstone is Marx's labor theory of value formed on the basis of inheriting and criticizing classical economics. Without the labor theory of value, it is impossible to establish the theoretical building of Marxist political economy. Therefore, we call labor theory of value the first cornerstone of Marxist political economy theory system. Then, as another part of the complete theoretical system of Marxist political economy, what is its cornerstone? We believe that Marx's international economic relations and world market theory should be based on international value theory. International value theory is the application and development of labor theory of value in the world market, and it is the basis of analyzing international economic relations, including international trade, international investment, international division of labor and international interest distribution. Marx believes that due to the nature of capital, when the narrow domestic market limits the desire of capital to pursue profits, capital will cross national boundaries and seek its own proliferation space in the world market. He pointed out that "on the one hand, capital has a tendency to create more and more surplus labor, and similarly, it also has a supplementary trend to create more and more exchange places; ..... is essentially to promote capital-based production or a mode of production suitable for capital. The trend of creating the world market has been directly included in the concept of capital itself. " ⑾ Not only that, he also believes that "only when the market develops into a world market can money develop into a world currency and abstract labor develop into social labor. The degree of development of abstract wealth, value and currency, and thus abstract labor, depends on the overall degree of the development of specific labor into various labor modes including the world market. " Therefore, in the world market, production and each of its elements are represented as a whole, so as to obtain the full development of its own nature. There is a deep meaning hidden here, that is, only in the "world collective" or the world market, a more universal and advanced commodity society, can goods really be manifested as the condensation of human indiscriminate abstract labor, and the concept of value can be expressed in the purest way and has universal significance. International value is the highest level of value entity operation. That is to say, value, as an undifferentiated general human labor condensed in commodities, is abstract labor, and it is impossible and impossible to fully develop in a country's relatively limited market scope and a country's relatively limited product series. Only at the level of the world market, the abstract labor contained in commodities is truly manifested as the general undifferentiated human abstract labor, which constitutes the entity of international value. Compared with the implied content of the concept of international value, the social value formed by the socially necessary labor time used by Marx in discussing a country's capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital can be called national value. Compared with national value, international value is a more abstract concept, which not only abstracts the labor differences between individual producers, but also further abstracts the differences between countries, so that value truly reflects the universal and undifferentiated abstract labor of human society. The individual labor of producers in various countries is re-abstracted in the world and transformed into world labor. This worldwide abstract labor constitutes an entity with international value. It is true that compared with the realization of national value, the realization of international value of commodities in the world is hindered by many factors, such as unreasonable international division of labor, trade barriers, international financial system, laws and policies of various countries and so on. However, these factors can not deny the existence of international value of commodities, but only affect the realization of international value more or less. International value is still the essential social attribute of commodities participating in international trade under the background of international division of labor. The logical deduction process of "value" from individual value to national value and finally to international value always follows Marx's analytical methods and narrative methods from concrete to abstract, from abstract to concrete, from simple in complexity to simple in complexity. Therefore, Marxist world economics, which takes the world market as the research object, should naturally be based on the "value" at the world market level, that is, international value. We believe that the international value theory is essentially a generalization of the labor value theory at the highest level and a concrete manifestation of the labor value theory in the world market. The "last three volumes" of Marx's political economy theory system, that is, the theoretical building of international economic relations and world markets, should and can only be based on the international value theory. Therefore, we call the international value theory the second cornerstone of the theoretical system of Marxist political economy. Third, the content system of the new textbook on political economy Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, Marxist political economy has always been a basic course for economic majors in colleges and universities in China. The content system of political economy textbooks has always been an important issue in the construction of political economy textbooks. Since the 1980s, many colleges and universities have devoted themselves to the reform of political economy textbooks, and some innovative textbook systems have emerged. For example, the original political economy (capitalist part) and political economy (socialist part) have been merged, and the focus has been on discussing the general market economy. Then, on this basis, combined with the characteristics of capitalist and socialist different social and economic systems, this paper discusses the operating mechanism and laws of capitalist market economy and socialist market economy. These reforms have adapted to the needs of China's socialist market economy construction to a certain extent, and also brought the theory closer to reality. However, if we consider the complete theoretical system of political economy envisaged by Marx, at the same time, we will find that the theoretical and practical significance of the reform of political economy textbooks is limited, which can neither fully reflect the complete theoretical system of Marxist political economy nor reflect the requirements of the times and theoretical essence that Marxist political economy should keep pace with the times. Therefore, we believe that the content system of Marxist political economy textbooks, including National Economics and World Economics, should be established under the guidance of Marx's historical materialism, combined with the new trends of economic development in contemporary countries and the world, and the new theoretical achievements of Marxist political economy. According to our understanding, the specific content and system of the new textbook of Marxist political economy can be arranged as follows: Part I: Political economy (national economic analysis). The part of national economic analysis takes commodities as the logical starting point, adheres to Marx's historical materialism and labor theory of value, and follows the logical process from abstract to concrete, from simple to complex, from * * * to individuality, and studies the domestic production mode, market operation mechanism and its internal laws. The part of "National Economic Analysis" can be divided into three parts: The first part is the general theory of political economy, including the basic categories and principles of political economy such as commodity, currency, capital and surplus value, capital accumulation, capital circulation and turnover, reproduction and circulation of total social capital, average profit and price, commercial capital and commercial profit, loan capital and interest. Chapter two, capitalist market economy. Combined with the basic characteristics of capitalist social system and the new development and new achievements of contemporary scientific and technological revolution, this paper discusses the internal operation mechanism, operation law and development trend of a country's capitalist production mode. Chapter III, Socialist Market Economy. Combined with the basic characteristics of the socialist social system, this paper studies the specific manifestations of a country's socialist market economy, including the basic contents of production mode, commodity circulation mode and income distribution mode under the conditions of socialist market economy. Part II: Political Economy (World Economic Analysis). Based on the theory of international value, the part of world economic analysis studies the "full development" of commodities in the world market and its movement mode, including international trade, international investment, international division of labor, international interest distribution and other specific contents, thus revealing the international economic relations between countries and the general rules of world market operation under the condition of increasingly globalized economy. "World Economic Analysis" can include the following three parts: The first part is that the world market economy is universal. It mainly studies the formation and development of the world market, the change of international division of labor, the international value of commodities, the formation and manifestation of the world average necessary labor time that determines the international value of commodities and other basic categories of world economics. Chapter two, economic globalization and international economic relations. This paper mainly studies the international economic relations between countries under the background of economic globalization, including international trade, international direct investment and international finance. Chapter three, the general law of world economic movement. Based on a profound analysis of the phenomenon of economic globalization, this paper studies the inherent laws of world economic movement, including international division of labor, international interest distribution and international economic contradictions arising from the operation of the world market and their coordination mechanisms. 4. As the second cornerstone of the theoretical system of Marxist political economy, the two basic issues of international value theory include two aspects: one is the regulation of international value quantity, and the other is the role of international value law. First, the provisions on the international value of commodities. When Marx explained the influence of labor intensity on the national wage difference in Chapter 20 of Volume I of Das Kapital, he explicitly talked about the provisions of international value. Marx wrote: "Every country has a moderate labor intensity, and the labor below this intensity takes more time to produce a commodity than the socially necessary labor time, so it cannot be regarded as normal high-quality labor. In a country, only when the intensity exceeds the national average, the value scale measured by labor duration will change. In the world market with various countries as its components, the situation is different. The moderate intensity of labor is different in different countries; Some countries are higher, while others are lower. Therefore, the average of countries forms a ladder, and its unit of measurement is the average unit of the world labor force. " [13] Here, Marx clearly pointed out that the international value of commodities is determined by "the average unit of world labor". In other words, the national value of a commodity is determined by the average necessary labor time in a country's society, while the international value of a commodity is "... determined by the average necessary labor time in the world market." [14] But, specifically, how is the average necessary labor time in the world market average? Is it the arithmetic average or weighted average of the average necessary labor time in various countries? If it is a weighted average, how to determine the weight of each country? Especially considering the vigorous development of regional economic integration organizations, is there regional international value of commodities in regional groups, and what impact will it have on international value on a global scale? Finally, the global production strategy of multinational companies requires that different production links of a commodity be distributed in various countries, and then all parts are assembled. Then, how will this global integrated production mode affect the international value of commodities? Therefore, when studying Marx's international value theory, we must fully consider Marx's original intention, and at the same time, combine the new characteristics of today's world economic development, and fully investigate the factors that affect the international value of commodities. Second, the change of the role of international value law. When talking about the role of international value, Marx once wrote: "The application of the law of value in the world will change greatly because of the following circumstances: as long as countries with high production efficiency are not forced to lower the sales price of their own goods to the same level as the value of goods because of competition, the labor of countries with high production efficiency is also counted as labor with high labor intensity in the world market." ⒂ Here, Marx emphasized that the content and manifestation of the law of value are different in the domestic market and the international market. Moreover, the role of the law of value in the international market presents new characteristics. The reason for this "greater change" is that Marx mainly attributed it to "countries with higher production efficiency are not forced to lower the price of their own goods to the level equal to the value of their own goods because of competition". So, what factors will affect the role of the law of international value? In the domestic market, market supply and demand and market structure are the main factors that make the market price deviate from the value. However, in the world market, in addition to the relationship between supply and demand and the market structure, the independence of national interests and the sanctity of national sovereignty are also important factors that affect the spontaneous emergence of international value laws, and the role of these factors will greatly affect the distribution of interests among countries in the world. From the perspective of global welfare promotion, we should devote ourselves to eliminating the factors that limit the role of international value laws and promoting the rational allocation of global production resources. However, from the perspective of all countries, it may not be beneficial to their own countries, especially developing countries, to let the spontaneous role of the law of international values come into play. Therefore, the regulation of international value quantity and the function of international value law are not only the two most important basic problems of international value theory, but also the two most basic theoretical problems of establishing scientific Marxist world economics. Only by solving these two problems can we better explore the internal mechanisms including international division of labor, international trade, international investment and international interest distribution and their relationships, and establish a theoretical system of world economics that can correctly reflect the general laws of international economic relations, the operation of world market economy and the development trend of world economy. Note: ① ④ ⑤ ⑾ The Complete Works of Marx and Engels, Volume I, Volume 46, People's Publishing House, 1979, pages 46, 7, 39 1. The Complete Works of Marx and Engels, Volume 29, People's Publishing House, 1972, pp. 53 1, 553 ~ 554 and 534. ⑦ Complete Works of Marx and Engels, Volume 30, People's Publishing House, 1975, p. 636. ⑧ Capital, Volume III, People's Publishing House, 1975, p. 127. Pet-name ruby The Complete Works of Marx and Engels, Volume 26, People's Publishing House, 1974, p. 278. ⑩ ⒀ ⒂ Das Kapital, Volume 1, People's Publishing House 1975, Page 71,6 13- 6 14. ⒂ The Complete Works of Marx and Engels, Volume 47, People's Publishing House, 1979, p. 405.