Looking for a guide to Turkey in July.

I am very happy to travel to Turkey. I've been to CITIC Group, and I get along very well, but it's hard to say who the attacker is. I recommend some interesting scenic spots to you ~~ 1. Hilapolis 2. Espin Dos Ancient Theatre III. Mevrana Museum. Capadocia takes a hot air balloon (this must be! Great) 5. blue mosque

Recommended tourist routes in Turkey? How to arrange the itinerary?

There are so many interesting places in Turkey, and there are many online route guides, but many of them are messy. So it's best to find a reliable free travel service to Turkey. Their travel strategies are all formulated by local tourism experts, and they are all very distinctive. In addition, they will provide you with an electronic guide. They will tell you where there is a toilet on the road and how many meters are left in the scenic spot. Just follow all the way. The scenic spots are also explained by Chinese voice, just like bringing a tour guide. Very impressive. Their 24-hour translation and help are also very thoughtful. When you are in trouble, you can always find someone to help you, so you feel safe. It's called Little Frog Freedom.

How many kinds of soil are there?

According to the popular classification, there are three kinds of soils, namely black soil, loess and red soil. Black soil is rich in humus; Loess is a common soil; Red soil is rich in iron oxide.

According to American classification, there are 12 kinds of soils, namely residual soil, calcareous soil, arid soil, newly formed soil, frozen soil, organic soil, weak fertile soil, black fertile soil, oxidized soil, residual soil, extremely fertile soil and expansive soil.

The main component of soil is minerals. The differences between soils are mainly manifested in morphological characteristics or physical, chemical and mineral aspects.

Extended data

Soil is composed of minerals and organic substances produced by various weathering and biological activities, including solid, gaseous and liquid.

Loose soil particles combine to form soil filled with voids, which contain dissolved solution (liquid) and air (gas). Therefore, it is generally believed that there are three states of soil.

The density of most soils is 1 ~ 2g/cm. Most of the American soils on the earth were formed after Pleistocene, and only a few soil components were formed before Tertiary.

Refer to Baidu Encyclopedia-Earth

China Soil Geography China is rich in soil resources, which is rare in the world. The main types of soil occurrence in China can be summarized as 12 series, such as red soil, brown soil, cinnamon soil, black soil, chestnut soil, desert soil, fluvo-aquic soil (including Jiang Sha black soil), irrigated and silted soil, paddy soil, wet soil (meadow and swamp soil), saline-alkali soil, lithologic soil and alpine soil. Red soil is an important soil resource in tropical and subtropical areas of southern China. From south to north are latosol, dry red soil (savanna soil), latosol (latosol), red soil and yellow soil. Latosol is developed in tropical rain forest or strongly aluminized acid soil under monsoon forest, and its distribution area in China is small. The analysis data of latosol in Hainan Island show that the weathering degree is very high, the silica-alumina ratio of clay is below 1.5, and clay minerals contain more gibbsite, kaolinite and hematite, with small cation exchange capacity and highly unsaturated base. The soil formed under savanna in tropical dry-hot red soil area is distributed in the Hongshui River basin in the southwest of Hainan Island and the south of Yunnan. The degree of soil aluminization is low, and the soil may have calcium reaction. Red soil is a transitional soil developed under the evergreen broad-leaved forest in the south subtropical zone, which has some properties of red soil and latosol. Red soil and yellow soil are both aluminized acidic soils generated under the evergreen broad-leaved forest in the middle subtropical zone. The former is distributed in areas with obvious changes in dry and wet seasons, with reddish brown or orange red, reticular and iron-manganese nodules at the bottom of the profile, and the silicon-aluminum ratio is 1.9~2.2. Clay minerals include kaolinite, hydromica and gibbsite. The latter is distributed in humid areas, mainly in Sichuan and Guizhou provinces. It is characterized by wet soil layer and yellow or waxy yellow deposits located in the middle of this section. Clay minerals contain more goethite and limonite. This series of red soil is suitable for developing tropical and subtropical cash crops, fruit trees and trees. Crops can be harvested twice a year, even three or four times a year, and soil production potential is great. At present, there are still a large area of barren hills to be transformed and utilized according to local conditions. Brown soil series are also developed under the forests in the humid areas of eastern China, which are yellow brown soil, brown soil, dark brown soil and calcareous soil in turn from south to north. Yellow brown soil The weakly aluminized, cohesive and acidic soil developed under evergreen broad-leaved forest in subtropical deciduous broad-leaved forest is distributed in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, between yellow, red soil and brown soil belt. Soil properties have some characteristics of yellow soil, red soil and brown soil. Brown soil is mainly distributed in Liaodong Peninsula and Shandong Peninsula in warm temperate zone. It is a neutral to slightly acidic soil developed under green broad-leaved forest or mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest in summer. It is characterized by a brown sedimentary adhesive layer under the humus layer, and the weathering degree of soil minerals is not high. The silica/alumina ratio is about 3.0. Clay minerals are mainly hydromica and vermiculite, with a small amount of kaolinite and montmorillonite, and the salt base is nearly saturated. Dark brown soil, also known as dark brown soil, is the soil developed under temperate coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest or coniferous forest, which is distributed in the mountains and hills in the eastern part of Northeast China, between brown soil and bleached lime soil. Different from brown soil, the accumulation of humus is obvious, the leaching deposition process is more intense, the cohesive layer is dark brown, and dark humus spots and silicon powder are common on the structural surface. Bleached soil was once called brown soil and calcareous soil and distributed in Daxing 'anling. It is the soil developed under the coniferous forest in the north temperate zone. Secondly, the surface layer shows weak ashing or iron decoloration. It often has a bleaching layer, strong acidity and highly unsaturated alkali. It belongs to the transitional soil type between meadow soil, calcareous soil and dark brown soil, and can be considered as a special soil cover under the influence of local climate and vegetation. Brown soil series is an important forest soil resource. At present, there is not only a large area of natural forests available for logging and utilization, but also a major forest production base in China. Most soils, especially yellow brown soil.

Cinnamon soil, also known as brown forest soil, is distributed in the semi-humid and semi-arid areas of warm temperate zone in eastern China and formed under the mesophilic summer green forest. It is characterized in that there is a brown sticky layer under the humus layer, which has low weathering degree, the silicon-aluminum ratio is 3.0~3.5, and contains a large number of clay minerals such as hydromica and vermiculite. Lime accumulation appears under the viscous layer in the form of pseudohypha. After long-term accumulation and cultivation, cinnamon soil forms a mature layer with a thickness of more than 30~50cm on the upper part of the profile, which becomes soil. Mainly distributed in Guanzhong area of Shaanxi Province. Black loessial soil is named for its deep and shallow black soil layer. This kind of soil was originally formed under semi-arid grassland vegetation. After long-term cultivation and maturity, it is mainly distributed in the loess areas of northern Shaanxi, western Shanxi and eastern Gansu. Gray-brown soil, also known as gray-brown forest soil, is soil distributed under mountain forests in arid and semi-arid areas, with dark brown or light brown cohesive layers. According to the different degree of lime leaching, it can be divided into two subcategories: gray brown soil and leached gray brown soil. In terms of utilization, cinnamon soil system is an important forest land except gray cinnamon soil, and other soils are dry land in northern China. Soil and water conservation is an important measure to develop agricultural production. A series of zonal soils in temperate forest grassland and grassland area of China, including grey black soil (grey forest soil), black soil, albic soil and chernozem. Characterized by a large accumulation of humus. Grey black soil is also called grey forest soil. In humid areas, Anling in Daxing is the most concentrated, with lush forest vegetation and undergrowth shrubs, vigorous grass growth process, large accumulation of organic matter, obvious soil leaching and clay migration and deposition. Black soil is rich in water and relatively humid, and the vegetation is grassland meadow, which is called Wuhuatang locally. The accumulation of soil organic matter is large, with a deep black soil layer, and the thickness of humus layer is more than 3070cm, and the underlying soil often presents mild fertility. It is named after the gray-white slurry layer under the humus layer on the surface of white soil. Distributed in mountainous basins and valleys in the northeast of China. The climate is humid, and the vegetation type is shallow-rooted plants. The accumulation of soil organic matter is not as good as that of black soil. Because of the poor decomposition degree of organic matter, it often shows peatization. The organic matter content in the top layer of the white soil layer is 8~ 10%, and the texture below the white soil layer is mostly heavy loam and clay. The white layer is light in texture and the leaching loss of iron is obvious. Clay minerals are mainly hydromica, with a small amount of kaolinite and uncertain substances. Calcareous soil is distributed in semi-arid areas. The vegetation is mainly grassland, with meadow grassland plants. The accumulation of organic matter is small, the decomposition intensity is higher than that of black soil, and the humus layer is generally about 30~40cm thick. Lime leaching deposition in soil often forms powdery or pseudobacterial calcium deposition at 60~90cm, which is an important feature that chernozem is different from other black soils. Black soil series is the most widely distributed in Northeast China, which is suitable for developing agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry. In particular, black soil, chernozem and albic soil are important targets for developing agriculture. In addition to cultivated land, there is a large area of wasteland for reclamation, which has great potential for agricultural production. Chestnut soil series includes chestnut soil, brown calcium soil and calcareous soil, which are widely distributed in grassland soil in northern China. This kind of soil has obvious processes of humus accumulation, lime leaching deposition, weak gypsum and salinization. The soil formed under the hay in the semi-arid area of chestnut wet zone is covered with chestnut or dark chestnut humus, with a thickness of 25-45 cm and an organic matter content of1.5-4.0%. Below the humus layer is a calcium accumulation layer, which contains a lot of gray-white variegated or powdery lime, and the lime content reaches 10-30%. The soil properties of chestnut soil in China showed obvious regional differences. Chestnut soil in the eastern part of Inner Mongolia Plateau has the characteristics of less whiskers.

Compared with chestnut soil, the accumulation process of humus in brown soil is weak, while the accumulation process of lime is greatly enhanced. The position of calcium accumulation layer generally rises in profile, which is formed in temperate desert grassland environment, mainly distributed in the central and western Inner Mongolia Plateau, the western Ordos Plateau and the northern Junggar Basin, and is a zonal soil for grassland to desert transition. The formation of calcareous soil is often related to loess parent material. Its distribution area is most concentrated in the northwest loess plateau, the eastern part of Hexi Corridor and the Ili Valley in Xinjiang. Soil profile differentiation is weak, and its occurrence degree is not as obvious as chestnut soil and brown calcareous soil. The basic color of humus layer is light yellow-brown with gray, and the calcium accumulation layer is not obvious. The content of organic matter in the surface layer is 0.5~3.0%, which extends downward deeply, generally reaching 50~70cm. Chestnut soil series is the main animal husbandry base in China and an important dry farming area. It is necessary to combine agriculture and animal husbandry, adjust measures to local conditions, improve grasslands, and establish artificial forage base. Desert soil series is an important soil resource in the desert area of northwest China, including grey desert soil, grey brown desert soil, brown desert soil and cracked soil. * * * The same features are: porous desert crust, low humus content, high lime content, strong surface aggregation, gypsum and soluble salt accumulation in the shallow part of the section, obvious residual adhesion and iron staining, thin thickness of the whole section and high gravel content (except cracked soil and gray desert soil). In the process of soil formation, the main manifestations are calcification (lime accumulation), gypsum and salinization, weak limonite, and the aeolian effect is quite obvious. Lime soil is developed on the fine-grained soil on the edge of temperate desert, mainly distributed in the alluvial plain in the south of Junggar Basin and the denudation plateau in the north, the central and western Hexi Corridor in Xinjiang and the eastern Alashan Plateau. The organic matter content in the surface layer of grey desert soil in Xinjiang is about 65438 0.0%, and the humus layer is extremely inconspicuous. The highest lime content can reach 10~30%, and the aggregate appears below 20 or 30 cm. The maximum salt content of soluble salt is below 40 cm, which is often related to gypsum layer. The weathering of soil minerals is in the stage of potassium removal, and the ratio of silicon to aluminum is about 4.0. The clay mineral is mainly hydromica. The coarse bone matrix in the soil developed under the conditions of gray temperate desert and brown desert soil occupies a large area in northwest China. Compared with grey desert soil, the accumulation of humus is weak, there is almost no humus layer, and the content of organic matter in the surface layer rarely exceeds 0.5%, and the content does not change much with the increase of depth. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen is very narrow, mostly between 4 and 7, but the lime content in the surface layer or subsurface layer is the highest, and gypsum accumulation is common, which is 10. Brown desert soil in warm temperate zone Semi-shrub-shrub desert soil is widely distributed in southern and eastern Xinjiang. This kind of soil is basically adapted to the rocky desert or Gobi, similar to the rocky desert in North Africa (or gypsum desert and gypsum shell), but its drought degree is stronger, so that a salt layer of chloride appears in the soil, which has become a rare phenomenon in deserts in the world. Desert soil with young cracked soil is distributed on the fine soil plain in temperate and warm temperate desert areas, and is often affected by short-term surface water flow. But it does not have the properties of water-bearing soil. Its surface is flat, hard and gray, and it is cut into irregular polygonal lobes by network cracks, which are like cracks embedded in the ground. This is its most representative feature. The utilization of desert soil series is mainly restricted by the content of fine-grained soil and the availability of irrigation water sources. At present, most of them are used for pasture, and only a few are used for farmland cultivation. Tidal soil and muddy soil are important agricultural soil resources in China, including tidal soil, muddy soil and oasis soil. This kind of soil is formed under the influence of long-term cultivation, fertilization and irrigation. In the process of soil formation, a series of new properties were obtained, which greatly changed the accumulation of soil organic matter, soil texture and hierarchical arrangement, and salt profile distribution. Tidal soil (including black soil in Jiang Sha) was once called light-colored grassland.

There are obvious sedimentary layers on the profile, alternating with clay and sand, shallow groundwater level, alternating oxidation and reduction of middle and lower soil, and obvious rust spots and carbonate differentiation and accumulation. Some areas are flooded and salinized. The mechanical composition of fluvo-aquic soil in the Yellow River sedimentary plain is that the old riverbed and natural dikes are mostly sand, the gentle slopes on both sides of the old riverbed are mostly light loam, and the shallow depressions are mostly clay. The content of soil organic matter is only 0.6~ 1%. Calcium carbonate content is 6~8%, potassium content is about 2%, and phosphorus content is mostly 0. 1~0.2%. Its salt content generally does not exceed 0.1%; It can reach 0.5~ 1% at the edge of depression. The soil is alkaline, with a pH of 7.5~8.5. The tidal soil layer is deep and rich in mineral nutrients, which is beneficial to the growth of deep-rooted crops. However, the content of organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus is low, and it is prone to drought and flood. Salinization exists in some areas and needs to be improved urgently. Silt is mainly distributed in Yinchuan, Inner Mongolia Houtao and Liaoxi Plain. The thickness of silting layer can reach above 1m, generally 30 ~ 70cm. The soil profile is homogeneous from top to bottom, with common cultural relics at the bottom. The buried surface of ancient farming can be seen under the silt layer. The physical and chemical properties of soil vary from region to region. Silt in Xiliaohe Plain is viscous, with an organic matter content of about 2-4%, a salt content of less than 0.3% and no gypsum. Silt in Hetao area is loose in sand, with organic matter content of about 1% and high salt content. Muddy soil is the main soil in the semi-arid plain of China, which is harvested once a year, mainly spring sowing crops, planting wheat, corn, millet and so on. Shallow groundwater level and abundant water resources; Due to poor drainage conditions and secondary salinization, attention should be paid to the combination of drainage and irrigation. Oasis, also known as irrigated desert soil, is mainly distributed in oases in desert areas of Xinjiang and Hexi Corridor, and is the main cultivated soil in arid areas. The thickness of irrigation layer can even reach1.0 ~1.5m; The siltation layer in Kanerjing irrigation area is less than1m. The differentiation of these thick silt layers is not obvious, and the organic matter content of the upper soil is generally 1~2%, and the lower soil can reach 0.5~0.7%. Rich in potassium. The content of calcium carbonate is generally 10-20%, which is evenly distributed. But it is easy to harden and secondary salinization. Combining irrigation with drainage, building windbreak belts and forest nets, rational crop rotation and planting a variety of green manure grasses are the main ways to improve fertility. Meadow and swamp soil series are wet soil. It is a kind of soil with water and half water. Meadow soil is formed by direct infiltration of groundwater and covered with meadow vegetation. It is widely distributed in Songnen Plain and Sanjiang Plain, and also distributed in floodplains and lakeside terraces on both sides of rivers in Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang. Meadow soil is generally rich in humus, which is distributed in northeast meadow soil. The thickness of black organic layer is greater than 1m, and there are silicon powder at the bottom of the soil, rust spots and iron-manganese nodules in the soil. In Xinjiang, the organic layer of meadow soil is only 25 cm, and a large amount of Alpinia officinarum is common, with salt accumulation. The content of surface organic matter is about 3~6%, even as high as 10%. At the depth of 1 m, its content can still reach 1%. In the arid area of northwest China, the content of surface organic matter is less than 4%. The content of calcium carbonate in meadow soil in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia can reach 10%. After reclamation of meadow soil, the cohesiveness of surface soil is lower, looser than before, and the organic matter content is lower. This kind of soil has high fertility, rich nutrients and good water supply, and is the main object of reclamation. As an important pasture base, it is very important to arrange the relationship between agriculture and animal husbandry reasonably. Marsh soil is formed under the condition of long-term water accumulation or excessive humidity. Widely distributed in Sanjiang Plain in Northeast China and Songpan Grassland in West Sichuan. There is a deep humus layer or peat layer. Because the soil is in a state of reduction for a long time, there is an obvious incubation process and sufficient de is formed.

Paddy soil is the product of agricultural activities. It is cultivated by various zonal soils, semi-hydrated soils and water-bearing soils through hydroponics. Under the influence of seasonal flooding irrigation, tillage, fertilization and other measures, the formation process is the alternation of oxidation and reduction, the synthesis and decomposition of organic matter, re-salinization and the leaching of salt base, as well as the decomposition, accumulation, migration and leaching of clay particles, which changes the original soil characteristics to varying degrees and differentiates the profile, thus forming a unique soil. The profile structure of paddy soil includes the following layers: plough layer (a), plough layer (p), infiltration layer (w), sediment layer (b), sediment layer (Bg) and potential layer (g). When the tillage layer is flooded, it is saturated with water, and it is semi-muddy or muddy. After drainage, it is a block structure, containing debris and sundries, and there are rust spots and plant residues on the structural surface; Plough bottom is dense, dark brown vertical structure, with rust lines and small iron-manganese nodules; Due to the infiltration of water, the leaching effect of iron in fertile layer is strong and the color is light; The sediments are mostly prismatic, with rust lines, rust spots and iron-manganese nodules; The sedimentary layer is located in the variation range of groundwater, which is gray-blue, with many rust spots and inconspicuous rust lines. The fertile layer is in a reduced state and has a blue-gray structure. Paddy soil can be roughly divided into three types: submerged tillage, water conservation and submerged tillage. Submerged development layer is shallow, belonging to early paddy soil, and the underlying soil still shows the characteristics of parent soil, such as red soil with red background; The water storage type is well developed and the profile structure is complete; The subsoil genus is developed from subsoil or swamp soil. Paddy soil is an important agricultural soil resource in China, which should be improved and fully utilized according to soil characteristics. Saline-alkali soil series can be divided into saline soil and alkaline soil. Saline soil Saline soil with high soluble salt content in China is mainly distributed in arid and semi-arid areas in northern China, especially in Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang. North China Plain and Weifen Mountain Valley are also dotted. Drought, strong evaporation, low terrain and underground salt water close to the surface are the main conditions for the formation of saline soil. The form of salt accumulation is usually surface frost, which is distributed in patches. Salt crust thickness (less than 3 cm) or salt crust (more than 3 cm) can appear in saline soil with high salt content, and the loose mixed layer of saline soil under crust or crust can range from several centimeters to 30~50 cm; You can even see the salt shell. The accumulation of salt shows a strong surface aggregation, and the salt gradually decreases downward. Salt accumulation in coastal areas is characterized by high salt content in the whole soil layer. The salt composition of saline soil in China is very complicated. Saline soil in coastal areas is mainly chloride saline soil; Sulfate soil is distributed in northern Xinjiang, Hexi Corridor in Gansu, Yinchuan Plain in Ningxia and Houtao area in Inner Mongolia, but the area is not large. Mixed saline soil of chloride and sulfate can be found everywhere in China, especially in Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu and Xinjiang. In addition, Songnen Plain in Northeast China and Datong Basin in Shanxi Province. Its salt composition contains carbonate, which is called soda saline soil. It is extremely alkaline and will corrode the roots of plants, making it difficult for most plants to grow. Comprehensive measures such as irrigation and drainage, biology and tillage should be taken to improve saline soil; Washing salt with rice is also an effective measure to improve saline soil. The distribution area of alkaline earth in China is small, and most of them are scattered in saline soil areas. Its characteristic is that the salt content in the surface layer is generally less than 0.5%, but the soil solution generally contains soda. In the absorption complex (especially in the alkalized layer), the replaceable sodium accounts for more than 20% of the total displacement. The pH value can reach 9.0 or higher. The organic and inorganic parts of the soil are highly dispersed, and colloidal particles and humus leach downward, which makes the surface soil lighter, while the alkaline layer accumulated by colloidal particles is sticky and sometimes forms a columnar structure. when we

The former has high exchangeable sodium content (7~ 10 mg equivalent/100 g soil) and the degree of alkalization is mostly 20~40%. The latter is only 1~2meq/ 100g soil in light soil and only 5~7meq/ 100g soil in clay, which may belong to early alkaline earth. In addition to the above water conservancy and agricultural measures, chemical improvement measures such as gypsum and phosphogypsum should be taken to improve alkaline soil. Lithologic soil series includes purple soil, calcareous soil, phosphocalcareous soil, loessial soil (loess) and aeolian sandy soil. This soil property still maintains the characteristics of parent rock or soil parent material. Soil develops on purple rocks. Sichuan basin is the most widely distributed, and the basins in southern provinces are scattered. The organic matter content of purple soil is about 65438 0.0%, which is slower than that of red and yellow soil in the same area and has not yet shown the characteristics of desilication and aluminum enrichment. It belongs to weakly chemically weathered soil with neutral to weakly alkaline reaction. The pH value is 7.5~8.5, the lime content varies with the parent material, and the alkali saturation reaches 80~90%. Purple soil is rich in mineral nutrients, which is fertile soil in hilly areas of Sichuan basin and has high agricultural utilization value. In the utilization, it is necessary to prevent soil erosion, pay attention to water storage irrigation, increase the application of organic fertilizer, and rationally rotate crops. Lime (rock) soil is rock soil developed on limestone. Limestone can be found everywhere in tropical and subtropical humid areas of China, but it is mainly distributed in Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan. Young lime (rock) soils are mostly formed in karst areas where limestone bodies are exposed. The vegetation in calcareous (stony) soil is mostly calcium-loving plants, such as ferns, awns and thatchs. The organic matter of these plants becomes the material basis for the improvement of calcareous soil. Lime (rock) soil can be divided into black lime soil, brown lime soil and red lime soil. Black calcareous soil is rich in organic matter, with good aggregate structure, dark soil color, neutral to alkaline reaction (pH6.5~8.0) and different soil thickness. Brown calcareous soil, common in foothills, is brown and sticky, and reacts with heterogeneous lime. Red calcareous soil, the soil color is bright red, and there is no lime reaction in the upper part. The pH value of surface soil is 6.5, and the pH value of core soil is 7.0~7.5. Lime soil is distributed in Dongsha, Xisha, Zhongsha and Nansha Islands in the South China Sea of China. Because these islands are located in the tropics, they are mostly composed of coral reefs. Lime soil is developed on the basis of coral reef rocks, and its parent material is coral limestone or fine sand formed by mechanical rolling of corals and shells. On the surface of the fine sand on the island, a large amount of bird droppings rich in phosphorus and organic matter are accumulated, forming calcareous soil rich in phosphorus. The surface organic matter content can reach more than 12%, and the total phosphorus content is 26~32%. Become a natural phosphate fertilizer resource rich in organic matter. Loessial soil, also known as loess, is widely distributed in hilly areas in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The soil is very similar to the parent material layer in color, uniform in texture, porous, good in tillage, low in organic matter content (only 0.5%) and rich in mineral nutrition. Sand is mainly distributed in semi-arid, arid and extremely arid areas in northern China. The characteristic of sandy soil is that the formation of soil is often influenced by wind erosion and sand pressure, which makes the formation process of soil very weak and the changes of soil properties and sediment deposition are very small. With the natural fixation of sandy land and the development of soil formation stage, the content of soil organic matter gradually increases from flowing aeolian sandy land to semi-fixed and fixed aeolian sandy land, which shows that vegetation can grow stably as long as fertilizer and water are added, and it can also be used in agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. Alpine soil series Alpine soil refers to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its soil near the altitude, the highest part of the vertical alpine zone, the soil above the forest canopy line or the alpine zone without forest. Due to the alternation of freezing and thawing, the degree of soil organic matter humification is low, mineral decomposition is weak, and the soil layer is shallow, thick and bony, and the grade differentiation is not obvious. Therefore, alpine soil is divided into a unique series; There are black felt soil (subalpine meadow soil), grass felt soil (alpine meadow soil), Bagatu (subalpine steppe soil) and Shaga.

Felt soil is distributed on the original gentle hillside, the soil is generally moist and there are dense alpine meadows. There is turf 3 ~ 5cm to10cm thick on the surface. Roots are intertwined like felt, light and tough, but elastic. Due to the interaction of freezing and melting, the surface often slides like scales. The humus layer is 920 cm thick and its content is 6 14%. Light taupe or dark gray, with a section thickness of 30~40 cm. Mostly used as summer pasture. Gatu is mainly distributed in the plateau wide valley lake basin on the north side of Himalayas, and the vegetation belongs to grassland type. The content of soil organic matter can sometimes reach 3~ 10%, and the film-like calcium carbonate is often accumulated on the back of the lower gravel. Most of them are pastures with sparse vegetation and low livestock carrying capacity. Shagatu is distributed in the southeast of Qiangtang Plateau and in front of the western Himalayas. When the soil is dry, the process of humus accumulation is weakened and calcium accumulation occurs. The soil is rich in gravel, with few grass roots on the surface and no continuous turf layer. The content of organic matter is about 1.5~3%, and the accumulation of calcium carbonate is obvious, and the highest can reach more than 10%. Sandy soil is harmful to wind and sand, especially pasture. Desert soil is also called cold soil. It is mainly distributed in Qiangtang Plateau of Tibet, with flat mountains and low and sparse vegetation covering 5- 10%. The accumulation of soil organic matter is weak, 0.4~0.6%, salt 0.5~ 1.6%, and calcium carbonate accumulation is obvious. There is white frost crust on the surface, which is porous and contains more gravel. A new gypsum body is also found, under which there is a gravel parent material layer. This kind of soil is rarely used, and sheep can only be raised after water accumulates in low-lying areas. Alpine desert soil is the soil with the latest influence from glaciers and the shortest soil-forming age. It is mainly distributed near the ice margin below the ice and snow activity belt on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The soil layer is shallow and the profile differentiation is not obvious. There is a slightly upward thawing shell on the soil surface, and the whole body is mostly thick bones. The decomposition degree of soil minerals is very low, and the vegetation is shell-shaped mat and cold-resistant mat Andromeda.