A simple historical question

Polei, the city-state of ancient Greece

City-state, or city-state, is a kind of citizen collective that evolved from primitive commune under certain historical conditions. The remarkable characteristics of ancient Greek history from the 8th century BC to the 4th century BC are the unbalanced development of economy, politics and culture in various regions, the coexistence of hundreds of city-states, and the emergence of many city-state alliances. Generally speaking, a city-state includes two parts: the city and the countryside. The city mentioned here refers to a political and religious center that is easy to keep and often has walls. A large number of polis were established by immigrants sent by the original polis.

The size and inhabitants of the city-states All Greek city-states are small countries. In its heyday, Sparta was the leading power in Greece at that time, with only about 8,400 square kilometers of land. Athens covers an area of about 2,550 square kilometers, and Argos covers an area of about 1400 square kilometers. There are nearly 100 city-states in Crete, covering an area of about 8,260 square kilometers, and there are 22 city-states in the Fokis region of central Greece, covering an area of about 1.650 square kilometers.

Delphi city-state ruins

According to their political status, the residents of Greek city-states can be divided into three categories: ① Free people who have civil rights and can participate in political activities. Citizens are generally related by clan and tribe, and men have to hold a rite of passage and perform certain procedures to obtain citizenship. According to the laws of Athens in 45 1 BC, only adult men with Athenian parents can obtain citizenship. (2) Freemen without citizenship. They are either immigrants from foreign countries (such as "foreigners" in Athens), people who are in an unequal position with citizens in power due to specific historical reasons (such as "border people" in Sparta), people who have lost their citizenship because of poverty, people who have been deprived of their citizenship because of breaking the law, or slaves who have been released. Under certain conditions, they can acquire or restore their citizenship. However, city-states generally do not easily grant these people citizenship, and it is strictly forbidden to pretend to be citizens. (3) Exploited and enslaved slaves. Most slaves were not Greeks, but some were Greeks, such as the "black lab" in Sparta. Most Greek city-states have fewer than 5,000 citizens. In 479 BC, there were no more than 2,000 residents in Platia, while there were only about 600 in Mycenae. The number of citizens in Sparta peaked at 9,000 in the 7th century BC, and then gradually decreased to 2,500-3,000 in 37 BC1year. Around 480 BC, Athens had 25,000 to 30,000 citizens. As for other residents, in 37 BC1year, there were 40,000-60,000 free people in Sparta and140,000-200,000 in Kuroshio. Around 480 BC, there were 4000 ~ 5000 free men and 30000 slaves in Athens. The citizens of each city-state as a whole constitute the ruling group, which is opposite to the freemen and slaves without citizenship. Citizens collectively exploit and rule freemen and slaves without citizenship, but not every citizen of all city-states is a slave owner. Most citizens of most city-states are self-reliant small producers. Among the freemen without civil rights, many people have a considerable number of slaves. Slave owners, as exploiting classes, are divided into citizens and non-citizens, which is one of the characteristics of the early polis.

In the process of the formation of all city-States, agriculture is the most important production department, and only citizens have the right to occupy land as the main means of production. Except Sparta, after the formation of the "equality commune", citizens did not engage in productive labor at all, and most citizens of most city-states engaged in agricultural production. In Athens, Corinth and other once developed city states, citizens engaged in handicrafts, navigation and commerce also played an important role in economic and political life. Various systems of polis The important task of polis is to defend national independence and internal security. In the city-state, all adult male citizens form a military group, and every citizen has the obligation to enlist for the war at any time, and in general, the military supplies and weapons and equipment are borne by the applicants themselves. Except during the tyrant's rule, there is no standing army in the general city-state that is divorced from and above the collective citizens. The disintegration of the civil servant system and the development of the mercenary system are important signs of the decline of the city-state.

Wealthy citizens must fulfill a wide range of public welfare donation obligations, which is an important system of Greek polis. The so-called charity donation is the bounden duty of wealthy citizens to donate to the country. Taking Athens as an example, charitable donations can be divided into two categories: one is related to war, such as being responsible for equipping warships; One is related to offering sacrifices and holding festivals, such as organizing tragedies, comedy performances and competitions. The public welfare donation of wealthy citizens reveals the characteristics of polis as collective citizens from one side. Even in Athens, where democracy is fully developed, it is mainly wealthy citizens who control state affairs, and almost all leaders are rich. Wealthy citizens distribute part of their exploitation income to the poor citizen class, which can not only enhance their position in the citizen collective, but also enhance the cohesion of the citizen collective. The unity of citizens' collective is the most important condition to ensure effective outward expansion, safeguard independence and suppress and rule freemen, slaves and foreigners without citizenship.

This city-state has no bureaucracy composed of professional officials and permanent financial institutions that levy direct taxes on citizens. Generally speaking, there are three kinds of political institutions in every city-state: a citizens' assembly composed of adult men, a parliament (such as the elders' assembly in Sparta and the 500-member assembly in Athens), elected public officials (or at least public officials who need to be confirmed by the citizens' assembly), and first of all, public officials in charge of military command. In the history of Greek city-states, there were monarchies and autocratic politics of individual dictatorship. But in the period of the development of the city-state system, there were * * * and political power. * * * and democracy * * * and the difference between * * * and nobility. The long-term practice of democratic politics is mainly a few city-states such as Athens. In ancient Greece, any social organization, regardless of family, clan, phratry, tribe or country, was also a religious complex, and all had their own sacrificial idols. At that time, there were no independent clergy, and chiefs and various public officials all played the role of priests. Sacrificing gods and organizing various festivals are the important duties of city-state organs.

The decline of polis and its historical significance The Greek polis represented by Athens and Sparta experienced a period of prosperity in the 5th century BC. It gradually declined from the 4th century BC. Due to the intensification of the polarization between the rich and the poor among citizens, the relationship between citizens and land is becoming increasingly relaxed, the internal contradictions among citizens' collectives are increasing, and the civil service system is beginning to collapse. The conquest of Macedonian king Alexander the Great in 338 BC and the enslavement of Greece by many kings in the Hellenistic era from 323 BC to the first 30 years BC deprived the vast majority of Greek city-states of political independence, disintegrated the original civic collective, and turned these city-states into huge local autonomous units under centralized jurisdiction.

As the unity of economy, politics, society and ideology, the emergence and development of polis had a far-reaching impact on the history of ancient Greece. Greek culture, whether it is literature and art, or philosophy, ethics, politics and religion, bears the profound imprint of the city-state system.

Greek city-state-Athens

Athens

An important city-state in ancient Greece, located in central Greece.

Attica, where Athens was located before the 5th century BC, was inhabited in the Neolithic Age and many bronze age sites were discovered. Palace ruins of Mycenae civilization era (from the first half of the 6th century BC/KLOC-0 to the first half of the 2nd century BC/KLOC-0) were discovered in the Acropolis. According to historical tradition, Athens was originally the place where Ionia lived. When Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus in BC12nd century, a large number of immigrants from other centers of Mycenae civilization moved here. At present, there are different opinions in academic circles as to whether the Athenian state produced in Mycenaean era once disappeared with the decline of the whole Mycenaean civilization, and when the legendary activity of theseus confederating the small town of Attica into a unified Athenian state took place. The existing fragments of written materials show that around 700 BC, Attica had formed a unified slave ownership country with Athens as the center.

In the 8th century BC, the royal power declined, and the political power was in the hands of clan nobles. Since 682 BC, the consul has been elected once a year. In the 7th century BC, nine consuls were in charge of the highest administrative, military, judicial and religious affairs of the country. The gentry in power occupied a large amount of land, exploited and enslaved poor gentry members, and even sold them to foreign countries as slaves, which caused increasingly strong dissatisfaction among ordinary gentry members.

In 632 BC, Keelung, who came from a clan and noble family, tried to seize power, but failed because he did not get the support of the civilians. In 62 1 BC, the consul delacour recorded the customary law in words and made it public, which limited the power of the gentry and nobles to some extent. At the beginning of the 6th century BC, the contradiction between clan nobles and civilians developed to a very sharp degree. In 594 BC, Solon, the arbitrator elected by both sides, reformed, abolished debt slavery, improved the power of the citizens' assembly, adjusted the interests of different classes in the citizens' collective, and laid the foundation of Athenian democracy (see Solon's reform). The tyrannical rule of peisistratus (about the end of the 7th century BC-527 BC) and his descendants (560 BC-5 BC10, which was interrupted twice) objectively attacked the gentry and nobles, improved the economic status of small farmers as citizens, and promoted the economic and cultural development of Athens. In 508 BC, the Christian reform replaced the consanguineous organization with regional organization as the administrative unit of the country, which weakened the influence of clan nobles in all aspects and promoted the development of democracy in Athens.

From the Persian War to the loss of independence in the first half of the 5th century BC, Greek states fought against Persian aggression for decades and finally won. Athens played an important role in the Greek-Persian War and became the leader of the Tyrol League founded in 478 BC. This greatly promoted the development of slave ownership economy in Athens, caused the change of power contrast among different classes of Athenian citizens, and led to the reform led by Ephialtes and Pericles in 462 BC (or 46 BC1year). This reform deprived the Senate of the God of War Mountain (that is, the aristocratic Senate) composed of retired consuls, and handed it over to the citizens' assembly, the people's court and the 500-member Senate respectively, which made democratic politics develop to a new stage. The military colonial system, various social welfare donations, subsidies to citizens and large-scale construction have enabled small producers, who account for the majority of citizens, to enjoy a certain guaranteed material and spiritual life. During the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC), Athens reached its peak in economy, politics and culture, and became the main cultural center that dominated the country and influenced the situation in the Greek world. Look at the Acropolis (the tallest building is the Parthenon).

In 43 1 BC, Athens and its allies broke out with the Peloponnesian League headed by Sparta. In 404 BC, the war ended in the defeat of Athens (see Peloponnesian War). The tyrol alliance collapsed. Athens once succumbed to Sparta. In 404 BC, the democratic regime was overthrown and the "thirty tyrants" raged for a while. In 403 BC, democracy was rebuilt. In the first half of the 4th century BC, Athens recovered its power to some extent by taking advantage of the contradiction between the Greek city-states such as Persia and Thebes and Sparta, and established the second Athens Maritime Alliance in 378 BC. The domestic political situation is relatively stable and the economy and culture have developed; However, the polarization between the rich and the poor among citizens has intensified and the contradictions have deepened. Since 1950s BC, the emerging Macedonia has increasingly threatened the independence and security of Athens, which has great interests in Thrace and the Black Sea Strait. There was a fierce struggle between the anti-Macedonian faction and the pro-Macedonian faction in Athens, and the two factions alternately prevailed. In the Battle of Coronha in 338 BC, Macedonia defeated the resistance of Greek states, thus establishing its hegemony over many Greek city-states, including Athens. From 323 BC to 322 BC, Athens and Macedonia fought in lamia, but failed. Since then, Athens has completely lost its political independence, and democracy exists in name only. It was incorporated into Roman territory in the middle of the 2nd century BC.

The cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Athens had a far-reaching impact not only on the Greek world at that time, but also on Rome and later Europe. During the Hellenistic era and Roman rule, although Athens retained its position as an important cultural center for a long time, its culture lacked creativity. Greek kings, Roman emperors and nobles built many buildings in Athens just to show off their power.

Greek city-state-Sparta

Sparta

An important city-state in ancient Greece. History is called Lakaidayimen. Lacconia in the southern Peloponnesus.

The formation and early development of the country was during the Mycenaean civilization (about BC1the first half of the 6th century-BC12nd century), and there was a country in Lacconia. Around 1 100 BC, Dorians began to invade Lacconia, and after a long struggle, they destroyed the original country. About 10 century BC, Dorians founded Sparta. The city consists of four villages, and the city walls did not appear until the end of the 4th century BC. By the end of the 8th century BC, Spartans had established a city-state and basically unified Lacconia. From about 735 BC to 7 15 BC, Sparta first conquered Messenia in the west; Then at the end of the 7th century BC, a large-scale uprising of the local people was suppressed and the area was completely occupied. In the process, Sparta was founded. From the 9th century BC to the 7th century BC, while Sparta expanded outward, great changes took place inside. The primitive commune gradually disintegrated and gradually formed a set of distinctive social and political systems. Traditionally, the emergence of these systems is attributed to the reform of legendary legislator Licurgos.

Spartan ruins

Social system and political system Spartan society is divided into three levels: ① Spartans. Plenipotentiary citizens in the polis lived entirely by exploiting slaves, with about 9,000 households at the peak. Adult male citizens of Sparta joined a so-called "equality commune" in the military and became the ruling class of Sparta. (2) the border people, a translation of pirias. The conquered border cities have about 30,000 residents. As a free man, he had local autonomy, but he didn't have the citizenship of the Spartan city-state. Mainly engaged in agriculture, but also in industry and commerce. ③ Black lab. Agricultural slaves belonging to all Spartans (see helotry system).

The polity of Sparta countries belongs to the aristocratic polity. The main political institutions of the city-state include: ① two kings, respectively inherited by two royal families. The main powers are religious and military. In peacetime, he presided over national sacrifices and handled family legal cases. During the war, one king led the army and the other king was in charge of guarding it. Because the two kings have equal powers, they often contain each other and limit the kingship. ② Council of elders. Two kings are ex officio members, and there are 28 other members. The elders hold office for life, and when there is a vacancy, they are selected from citizens over 60 to fill the vacancy. The Council of Elders drafts resolutions for Parliament, presides over criminal trials and handles state administrative affairs. (3) the citizens' assembly. It consists of all Spartan male citizens over 30 years old. Citizens can vote on bills and elect officials at the general assembly, but they cannot introduce bills. The voting method of the citizens' assembly is generally based on the voices of the participants, so it may not really express the wishes of citizens. (4) Five supervisors. Elections are held once a year. In principle, every Spartan citizen has the right to stand for election. It is said that the Ombudsman was originally a judicial assistant under the king. After the conquest of Messenia, their power gradually increased, and they could not only supervise all the officials of the Spartan city-state, but also have the right to judge or even execute the king. Every time the king goes out to war, two inspectors accompany him to supervise on the spot.

In order to suppress a large number of rebellious slaves, the Spartan city-state stipulated a strict military training system for citizens. After a citizen's child is born, it can only be adopted after passing the medical examination. At the age of 7, the boy will leave his family and join his children's company to receive preliminary organizational discipline training; /kloc-after 0/2 years old, you should receive strict military and physical training. When a man marries as an adult, he usually lives in a military camp, participates in dinners and exercises, and can't be discharged until he is 60 years old.

After the middle of the 6th century BC, Sparta gradually formed the Peloponnesian League with most of the city-states of the Peloponnesian Peninsula and became the leader of a Greek city-state group. Through this alliance, Sparta often interfered in the internal affairs of Athens and other countries. At the beginning of the 5th century BC, it did not send troops to support the uprising of the Greek city-states in Asia Minor against Persia. In 480 BC and 479 BC, Spartans served as commander-in-chief of the allied forces of Greek states in Bo Shi War, and joined forces with Athens and other countries to oppose Persian aggression. Since then, with the establishment of Tyrol League and the growth of Athenian power, the contradiction between Sparta and Athens has become increasingly acute. After the earthquake in 464 BC, Heros took the opportunity to rebel. In order to save the crisis, Sparta turned to Athens for help. In 404 BC, with the help of Persia, Sparta defeated Athens and became the winner of the 27-year Peloponnesian War and the overlord of all Greece. Its tyrannical rule quickly aroused the dissatisfaction and resistance of the polis. From the 4th century BC to the 3rd century BC, it competed with Athens, Thebes and Corinth for a long time and gradually lost its advantage. The polarization between the rich and the poor of Spartan citizens is accelerating, the number of people who have lost their land and citizenship is increasing, the "equality commune" tends to collapse, and citizen soldiers are weakening. In 37 1 year BC, Sparta invaded the Greek city-state Thebes and suffered a great defeat. The king is dead. Subsequently, Messenia became independent and the Peloponnesian League disintegrated. In the late 3rd century BC, the social contradictions in Sparta were particularly fierce, and the reforms of Achilles IV and Cleo Menez III ended in failure. In BC 192, the Spartan tyrant Nabis was killed, and Sparta was forced to join the Ahaya League, which actually lost its independence. After the Roman Empire conquered the Peloponnesus, Sparta was destroyed by the Goths in 396 AD. Later, Byzantine residents moved in and called it Lakaidaymon in Homer's epic.

The Greek city-state-Corinth

Corinth

A city-state occupied by slaves in ancient Greece. Located at the southwest end of the isthmus of Corinth, it is in the middle of the main road between Greece and Peloponnesus. There are ports in Corinth Bay and Saronicos Bay, and the sea traffic is very convenient. It has been inhabited since 3000 BC, and the city of Corinth has existed since the Mycenae civilization (about 65438 BC+the first half of the 6th century BC-65438 BC+the 2nd century BC). It was conquered by Dorians at the end of the second millennium BC.

From the 8th century BC to the 6th century BC, Corinth had not only developed agriculture, but also prosperous entrepot trade. Corinth's pottery is very famous, and shipbuilding and navigation have also made great progress. Corinth successively established many colonies, such as Syracuse, Kolgura, Bo Tiddia, ambra and Kea. From the 8th century BC to the middle of the 7th century BC, Bashi Ades family held the city-state power and practiced aristocratic oligarchy. Heep Selous (reigned from about 657 BC to 627 BC) overthrew the Bashi Ades family and established a tyrant rule. During the reign of his son Perry Andel (about 627-586 BC), Corinth was very prosperous. In order to facilitate the flow of goods between Corinth Bay and Saronikos Bay, a stone road connecting the two ports was built. Culture, art and architecture are very prosperous. Around 58 1 BC, the tyrant regime was overthrown and replaced by an aristocratic regime with a few rich people in power. In the late 6th century BC, Collins joined the Peloponnesian League.

In the early stage of Sino-Polish War, Collins took an active part in Wenquanguan Campaign, Platia Campaign, Salamis Campaign and Micale Campaign. Before and during the Peloponnesian War, the contradiction between Corinth and Athens once reached a very sharp level. But from 395 BC to 387 BC, Corinth allied with Argos, Thebes, Athens and other city-states, and with the support of Persia, fought the Corinthian War with Sparta. After 338 BC, it basically belonged to Macedonia. In BC 196, Rome defeated Macedonia and declared Corinth "independent". In BC 146, Corinth was destroyed by Rome, a large number of residents became slaves, and the city was completely destroyed. In 46 BC, G.J. Caesar rebuilt it and became the center of Achaia province under Roman rule.

Greek city-state-greater Greece

Greater Greece; Great Greece

From the 8th century BC to the 6th century BC, the ancient Greeks established a series of city-states in the southern part of the Italian peninsula, which were mixed with indigenous settlements. Greater Greece is the product of Greek immigration activities. In the first half of the 8th century BC, the Helgi people first immigrated to southern Italy, and established the two city states of Kumai (about 750 BC) and Leken (about 720 BC). Then the Ahayes established barris (about 720 BC) and Croton (about 7 10 BC), the Spartans jointly established the tower (about 706 BC), and the Fukai people established the city-state of Elijah (about 530 BC). Some city-states were initially established, and some later established their own sub-states. For example, barris established Poseidon.

In addition to frequent wars with neighboring Italian nations, the Zhucheng countries of Great Greece also frequently have wars with each other. In 5 10 BC, Croton razed the city after defeating barris. In 453 BC, the exile of Paris rebuilt the city, which was destroyed by Croton. In 443 BC, with the support of Pericles, Greeks from many city states, including some Athenian citizens, established Tully near Paris. In the 4th century BC and 3rd century BC, the city-states of Great Greece were harassed by the Syracuse lords de Onisi and Agasocklis, and were once under the rule of de Onisi. In 282 BC, together with the war with Rome, the tower and the people asked for support from King Pyrrhus of Epirus. In 272 BC, Tallinn fell into the hands of Rome, and all the city-states of Great Greece were successively occupied by the Romans.

Great Greece once had developed agriculture, handicrafts and commerce, and was the main venue for famous philosophers Pythagoras, parmenides and Zhi Nuo, which had a great influence on the development of Roman culture in literature, art and architecture.

Greek city-state-Syracuse

Siracuza

Ancient Greek polis. Located in eastern Sicily. It was built by immigrants from Corinth in 734 BC. In the 7th and 6th centuries BC, the nobles of Syracuse came to power and enslaved the local conquered residents. In 485 BC, Gron, a tyrant in the Greek city-state of Gera in the south of Sicily, took advantage of the discord among the residents of Syracuse to occupy Syracuse and became the tyrant of Syracuse. In 480 BC, Gron defeated the Carthaginian army near Milla, enabling Syracuse to dominate the eastern part of Sicily. His successor Herod I (reigned from 478 BC to 467 BC/466 BC) actively intervened in the struggle between some city-states in the Italian peninsula. About 466 BC, ancient Syracuse established a democratic regime, and political affairs were handled by citizens' congresses, councils and generals elected every year.

From 465,438+05 BC to 465,438+03 BC, Athens sent troops to attack Syracuse, and suffered a heavy defeat. De Onisi Oss (old) took advantage of the tension in the war with the Carthaginians to rebuild the tyrant's rule in Syracuse in 405 BC and reigned for nearly 40 years (405-367 BC). In the long struggle with Carthage, both sides have won and lost. At the beginning of the 4th century BC, Syracuse once controlled most of Sicily and many places in southern Italy. In 367 BC, the eldest son of De Onisi Oss succeeded to the throne as a tyrant, and was called De Onisi Oss Jr. (reigned from 367 BC to 354 BC, and from 354 BC to 343 BC). Since the end of 1950s BC, the internal disputes in Syracuse have continued, the national situation has been declining, and the population has decreased. Democracy was restored in 343 BC. Agathocles, a tyrant who has been in power since 3 17 BC, once led an army to fight against Carthage in Africa, once expanded to southern Italy and western Sicily, and became the king of Sicily in about 304 BC. When Hero II, the tyrant, was in power (about 270 ~ 2 BC 1 6 BC/2 BC15 BC), a group of retired Italian mercenaries forcibly boarded Messina at the northeast end of Sicily, which became the fuse of the1Punic War. In 264 BC, the Roman army entered Sicily, and Syracuse was forced to sign a treaty with Rome. His influence was limited to the southeast of Sicily, and he supported the Romans against Carthage. After the death of Herod II, Syracuse supported Carthage in the Second Punic War and was invaded by loyal opposition and Rome. It was captured by the Romans in 2 1 1 BC. Since then, Syracuse has been ruled by Rome for a long time and has become a part of Sicily.

Olympia, the Greek city-state

Olympia

One of the centers of religious sacrifices and sports competitions in ancient Greece, the birthplace of the Olympic Games. Located in Ellis, northwest of Peloponnesus. Existing ancient stadiums, Zeus Temple, Hera Temple and other relics. Competitive games originated from religious festivals. It is said that the first Olympic Games was held in 776 BC and has been held every four years since then. By 393 AD, the ancient Olympic Games had been held 293 times. The last Olympic Games was held in 393, because the Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I ordered non-Christians to hold polytheistic sacrifices and competitions.

At the beginning, the only event of the sports meeting was running. The track was 2 10 meters long and 32 meters wide. Later, long jump and carriage race were added. Participants were initially limited to Dorians living in the northwest of the Peloponnesus, and developed to include all Greeks. The competition will be held in late June and early July. The initial competition period was 1 day, and it was determined to be 5 days in 472 BC. During the Games, the states stopped fighting, the businessmen who participated in the Games held daytime trading, and poets and writers competed to read their works.

With the rise of modern sports, 1888, P de Coubertin of France proposed to restore the Olympic Games. Since then, it has been held every four years and all over the world.

The Hellenic Republic is located at the southern tip of the Balkan Peninsula, with an area of 13 1990 square kilometers. The coastline is as long as 12500 km. Population10.27 million, with Greeks accounting for 98%. Believe in the orthodox church. Speak Greek.

Greece is an ancient civilization in Europe, with a recorded history of more than 2700 years. After AD 146, it was ruled by foreign countries for a long time. 1830, the kingdom of Greece declared its independence. World War II was invaded by Germany, and the whole territory was liberated in June1944+1October 15. On June 1973, * * and June 1 day, the reconstruction was carried out.