What is the modern history of the Middle East?

During World War I, Britain made three conflicting commitments in response to the Ottoman Empire, which resulted in a large number of conflict and war genes being planted in the Middle East.

The Middle East, located at the intersection of Europe and Asia, has always been an important stage for political games and power play among major powers. From the fall of the Ottoman Empire to the rise of the Islamic State. In the past hundred years, the chaos in the Middle East has never stopped.

There is a view that it was the "man-made" political map of the Middle East by the Western colonial powers that laid the foundation for a large number of conflicts and wars, and started the century-long process of fission of the political map of the Middle East. This "Western Power" is Britain and France.

Most of the countries in the Middle East today were originally ruled territories or vassals of the Ottoman Empire. At its peak, the Ottoman Empire spanned the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, stretching from Eastern Europe to the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula and then around the Mediterranean.

In fact, before World War I, the Ottoman Empire, which had once been so glorious that Europeans were shocked by it, had become a "vassal of Europe." After the outbreak of World War I, the Ottoman Empire joined the Three Kingdoms Alliance of Germany, Italy and Austria, regardless of its declining national power. The storm that swept through Europe completely changed the political landscape of the Middle East.

The entry of the Ottoman Empire had the greatest impact on British interests. Britain was dominating the Middle East at the time, with its influence entering this vast region from India and Egypt. In order to preserve its interests, Britain made three promises during World War I. These three promises conflicted with each other, making it impossible for Britain to fulfill them, leading to today's chaos in the Middle East.

In the name of the leader of Islam, the Ottoman Sultan called on Muslims around the world to engage in "holy war" with the Allied Powers. In order to eliminate this threat and win the support of the Arabs, Britain actively encouraged Sharif Hussein of Mecca to fight against Turkey. In order to get rid of Turkish rule, establish a unified Arab country, and become the leader of Muslims around the world, Hussein also urgently needed British support, so the two sides conducted negotiations aimed at forming a military alliance.

Hussein had a great appetite at first. On July 14, 1915, he wrote to the British High Commissioner in Egypt, MacMahon, proposing the basic conditions for an alliance between the two parties, hoping to establish an alliance covering the entire Arab world. peninsula, Syria, Iraq and Palestine, and demanded British consent to the abolition of foreign privileges within the Arab states. The British government rejected these conditions.

After several letters of bargaining, under the pressure of the situation, Britain had to make vague commitments and basically agreed to Hussein’s demands, but listed two exceptions: the western part of Syria (considering France interests) and south of Baghdad (British interests). It’s worth noting that McMahon doesn’t mention Palestine at all.

In 1916, Hussein kept his word, fulfilled the agreement reached with the British, and began a long-planned rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. This move decisively helped the British army march from the Sinai Peninsula to Damascus via Jerusalem. The British sent Lawrence to organize Arab rebels for a surprise attack. He has repeatedly accomplished extraordinary feats and his name has gone down in history, and he is known as "Lawrence of Arabia".

In eight months of secret communications, Britain made its first territorial commitment. This communication was never made public at the time, and the communication itself was not an official document. Afterwards, when the British reneged, some commentators accused Hussein of having too many good illusions about the British promises.

While Sir McMahon was corresponding with Hussein, the British government sent Sir Sykes to negotiate with the French government about post-war political arrangements in the Middle East. The French representative was Pico, who had served as the consul in Beirut. The two reached a secret agreement in October 1916, dividing the two countries' spheres of influence in the Middle East with a stroke of pen: the British sphere of influence south of Baghdad, and the Syrian coast area. It is the French sphere of influence, and the two enjoy direct control here.

At the same time, Britain and France delimited their respective spheres of influence in the areas promised to Hussein for the establishment of a state. The British covered the northern Arabian Peninsula, spanning from Kirkuk in present-day Iraq to the Gaza Corridor. France's stretched from Damascus to Mosul in present-day Iraq.

In order to gain Russia's approval, Britain and France agreed to Russia's annexation of northeastern Anatolia. However, after the Russian October Revolution in 1917, the Soviet government announced the agreement and exposed the British and French conspiracy. It embarrassed Britain and France.

The Sykes-Picot Agreement was a secret deal between Britain and France to divide their spheres of influence. The independent Arab countries mentioned in the agreement were essentially colonies controlled by Britain and France. Their territories were smaller than those stipulated in the Hussein-McMahon letter, and most of them were uninhabited deserts and barren areas.

Because Hussein was unaware of the existence of the agreement, he felt deeply betrayed afterwards. The agreement also ignored the complex religious and ethnic backgrounds of the region, leading to the ongoing chaos in Iraq and Syria today.

On November 2, 1917, the British made another territorial commitment. This time, not to mention the Arabs, even the French were kept in the dark. British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour promised the Zionist League in Britain "a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine." Palestine was granted three kingdoms.

Is the "national home" a "nation-state"? This became another point of controversy in the future.

Such a vague promise was in Britain's interest, because Britain needed to win the support of the Jews without tying itself to the Zionist movement. The international support that Britain has clearly expressed its sympathy for Zionism is exactly what Zionism dreams of.

There are two main reasons why Britain could agree to the self-determination of the oppressed Jews and generously give them a piece of territory from the Ottoman Empire. One is to prevent the Allies from attracting Jews, which would lead to huge Jewish funds. Flowed into the hands of the Allies; secondly, with the deepening of World War I, there was increasing international criticism of Britain's imperialist behavior, especially criticism from the United States.

Three conflicting commitments eventually exploded. In 1917, the Balfour Declaration was publicly issued to seek Jewish support. In the same year, the new Soviet government after the Russian October Revolution made the Sykes-Picot Agreement public. To the world. The whole world was shocked, and all parties knew they had been betrayed.

On February 7, 1939, the British government held a Palestinian conference hoping that Jews and Arabs would reach an agreement. The British issued a white paper limiting Jewish immigration to 75,000 and restricting Jewish land purchases. The White Paper was viewed by many Jews and Zionists as a betrayal of the Jewish people and considered a violation of the Balfour Declaration.

The three conflicting commitments made by Britain in World War I and the post-war conflicts roughly determined the political landscape of the Middle East today. The Middle East has been unable to escape the influence of World War I.

In Africa, Latin America, and Europe after World War II, which caused tragic casualties, most countries have basically accepted the national borders imposed on them by history. However, this is not the case for various countries in the Middle East. The countries established in the Middle East after 1914 and the national borders delineated are still considered illegal by the nationals of these countries and their neighboring countries.

American historian David Fromkin's book "The Peace to End All Peace" explains the origin of the modern Middle East. He believes that the legitimacy of countries in this region has only two sources: one is Tradition, and the second is the power and bloodline of the founders. Otherwise, it is considered illegal.

In this vast area, only four countries, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia, are relatively stable. Egypt and Iran have a long history of not being cut off by foreign nations, even if they encounter difficult crises. , territorial integrity was finally realized. Türkiye and Saudi Arabia are relatively stable because the power and lineage of their founders convinced the public.

There is a view that if the Ottoman Empire did not participate in World War I, Turkey could keep Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and other places. Oil resources are extremely rich. The empire then continued to promote Ottomanism, weakened nationalism, and maintained the empire with Islam and Ottoman nationalism. In this way, the Middle East may not be as turbulent as it is now.

Nearly a hundred years have passed since the First World War ended, but the killings have never stopped in the Middle East.