Aristocratic democracy in medieval Poland

Polish aristocrats have always enjoyed extensive freedoms and privileges. What is more special is that, unlike the western European society, there is no triangular power relationship of king-citizen-aristocrat in the strict sense in Poland. From the early Middle Ages, a considerable proportion of citizens and property owners in major cities in Poland were foreign immigrants, especially Germans, whose municipal organizations and laws basically followed the German urban model. When it is necessary to solve problems, it is difficult to reach consultation and unity within the civil class, and it is also difficult to reach communication and understanding with other social groups such as nobles and peasants, and even hold hostile views on Poland (which is very obvious in the face of contradictions and struggles between Poland and Germany). On the other hand, due to the influence of factors such as natural geographical environment, population, economy and commercial trade level, the development level of Polish cities is still not high, the economic strength of citizens and capitalists is not strong, and the political unity against kings and nobles is far from being formed. Therefore, on national political issues, almost a single performance is the two-way relationship between the king and the nobility.

1386, Poland and Lithuania realized dynasty union. The newly established Kingdom of Poland is actually a feudal monarchy, and the core authority of the country is a bicameral parliament led by nobles. On the one hand, citizens, businessmen and craftsmen in the city are unable to form a group that maximizes interests and coordinates externally due to their own internal reasons, and are gradually squeezed out of the hierarchical representative institutions such as parliament by the nobles, losing their important political discourse rights. On the other hand, the king's power was repeatedly restricted by the nobles, and at the same time he was forced to continue to grant the nobles freedom and privileges, which were mainly aimed at the middle nobles. 1374, Louis of the Hungarian Anjou Dynasty, who was elected as the king of Poland, promulgated an important decree in Kosice in order to gain the support and stable rule of Polish nobles: it stipulated that the land tax paid by nobles to the state should be greatly reduced; Taxation in the future must be unanimously agreed by all nobles; Noble compulsory military service is limited to domestic service, and if you want to go abroad, you must give special remuneration. 138 1, the church also got the privilege of tax reduction. As a negative domestic policy, the Kosice Charter strengthened the privileges of nobles in the economic and political fields while limiting the royal power, which was only the beginning. 1454165438+1October, in order to enlist all Polish noble vigilantes against the Teutonic Knights, Kazimir IV issued a decree in Neshawar, that is, the king must obtain the approval of the local parliament to enlist vigilantes to participate in the war and collect taxes. In fact, the nobles used the thirteen-year war to further expand their privileges.

1505, the aristocratic parliament adopted a new constitution, stipulating that the king has no right to promulgate new laws, levy taxes, recruit aristocratic militia, declare war or make peace without the consent of both houses of parliament. 1505 the constitution actually ended the hierarchical monarchy and marked the beginning of aristocratic democracy in Poland. 1569, Poland and Lithuania held a meeting in lublin to compete for the Baltic Sea region with great strategic and economic value and to fight against the expanding Moscow Principality, and decided to formally merge the two countries and establish a new Republic of Poland (rezczpospolita). On the one hand, Polish aristocrats hoped to join forces with Lithuanian forces to compete for important areas and seaports in the Baltic Sea, which was very important for grain exports that dominated foreign trade at that time. Lithuanian aristocrats are also willing to gain the same freedoms and privileges as Polish aristocrats after the merger, and they can use Poland's strength to resist the threat from Moscow. After the establishment of the Republic of Poland, it is a federal state including the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the king is elected by the nobles of the two countries.

1572, Zygmont ii, the last king of the yagwo dynasty (1548- 1572) died. Because there were no children, the Yagwo dynasty was interrupted, and Poland began to implement the system of freely choosing a king. 1573, Polish nobles (mainly middle nobles) elected Henry from French valois family as the new king of Poland. In exchange, more importantly, in order to protect the traditional aristocratic freedoms and privileges and prevent the introduction of the French monarchy, the nobles demanded that Henry recognize the political principles of Poland and announce a new policy in favor of the nobles, the so-called Henry decree: the king was freely elected by the nobles all over the country; The king convenes a six-week National Assembly every two years; Without the consent and authorization of the parliament, the king may not recruit militia, levy taxes, declare war on foreign countries or make peace without authorization; In addition, a special standing body composed of 16 senators was established to study and supervise the implementation of foreign policy; If the king can't abide by the above principles, the nobles can disobey the king's orders. Free election of the king has become the core pillar of aristocratic democracy, because it means that the nobles who account for 10% of the national population have the right to participate in the election of the king. Every nobleman enjoys full political freedom, including inviolability of person and property. 1573, the polish aristocratic parliament passed the law on freedom of religious belief. Law 1588 prohibits kings and government officials from searching aristocratic families and their residences. Nobles can't be arrested unless they commit serious crimes such as murder, arson and robbery. , and has been verified and sentenced by the court. In Poland, this privilege is called "golden freedom". 16-18th century, 10% citizens have the right to vote and stand for election, which is unique in Europe. Until the19th century, it was difficult for advanced capitalist constitutional countries such as Britain and France to reach this high proportion.