What is the history of Germany?

Archaeological evidence in the Germanic period shows that human beings set foot on German land about 700,000 years ago. It is speculated that human beings began to migrate here about 500 thousand years ago. Due to the lack of documentary records, the early history of Germans is not very clear. The Roman Empire first recorded the activities of Germanic tribes, but these Germanic tribes were not the same as the Germans today. At that time, the so-called Germanic tribes were all tribes living in northern and central Europe and using Indo-Germanic languages. Modern ethnologists don't know the meaning of this name. It is believed that Kelten, an early European resident, first used this name to address new immigrants. Julius Caesar used the name "Germanic" to refer to the tribes living on the right bank of the Rhine (in today's Germany) during his expedition to Gaul. Later, the concept of "Germanic race" was gradually introduced into the Roman world. Germanic tribes refer to some ethnic groups who once lived in southern Scandinavia (including Denmark) and its adjacent areas. Their culture and religion are quite close, so they become a cultural circle. Around 1000 BC, because of the climate deterioration in northern Europe, residents in this area began to migrate to the south. By 450 BC, they were distributed along the Rhine, south to the north of the Alps and east to Wichita on the Vistula River. In the 2nd century BC, these ethnic groups started another wave of national movements and began to have more contacts with the Roman world. Around A.D., many Germanic tribes had settled in the Danube and Rhine rivers, and these tribes were constantly in conflict with the Roman Empire, which tried to conquer this area. In 9 AD, the Germanic tribes defeated the powerful Roman Empire at that time in the Battle of Teutonburg Forest. In this battle, the Germanic tribes ambushed and destroyed three Roman legions. Since then, the Romans have never really tried to push the eastern border of their empire to the other side of the Rhine. Although Germanic tribes take language, descent, living habits, culture and beliefs as the indicators of ethnic groups, due to dispersion, individual differences can be considerable. Therefore, when large-scale ethnic migration began in the 4th century, it was not the collective action of the whole blood-related ethnic groups, but the smaller clan organizations. Historians divide these floating Germanic tribes into three categories: West Germanic, East Germanic and North Germanic. West Germanic refers to these peoples who lived in the Rhine River in the west, the Weser River in the east, the Danube River in the south and the North Sea in the 1 century BC. From 407, Germanic tribes along the Rhine River crossed the Rhine River and established a series of short-lived kingdoms in parts of France and Spain today. In 476, the Germans United with the lower classes of the Roman Empire and overthrew the illustrious Roman Empire. From 376 to 568, "barbarian" tribes scattered outside the Roman Empire forcibly moved to the territory of the Empire and established their own country. The reason for the great ethnic migration is the disintegration of the German primitive commune system, and tribal dignitaries, military leaders and pro-soldiers are eager to plunder new land and wealth. The natural growth of population brings pressure to productivity. In order to develop animal husbandry economy, ordinary Germans have to move to other places. The crisis of Roman slavery and the decline of the empire were unable to resist the invasion of foreign enemies, which made the armed migration of barbarians go deep into the hinterland of the empire. Since 509, Franks have been divided into three tribes: Salian, Riparian and Katie (Chatty or Hesse). From 428 to 480, the Franks of Salem occupied most of Gaul north of the Royal River. Ripley Ann and Katie remained in the northeast of Germany and Gaul. Under the rule of their king Clovis (481/482 ~ 511), the Sahelians believed in Catholicism. Clovis extended his rule to other Franks and conquered most other parts of Gaul. The heirs of his Metan dynasty (named after his grandfather's Metan family) ruled the land of the Franks until it was replaced by the Caroline family in the 8th century. Charlemagne of Caroline Dynasty (768-8 14 reigned) cooperated with the Pope to restore the Western Roman Empire and spread Catholicism to central and northern Germany. His empire disintegrated in the middle of the 9th century. At the end of the 5th century after the founding of Germany, the Frankish Kingdom was established, which lasted for several centuries, including the glorious period of Morovin Dynasty and Carolyn Dynasty. Under the rule of Charlemagne (crowned in 800), the kingdom almost extended to most of today's French and German areas, known as Charlemagne Empire in history. After Charlemagne's death, the empire soon split. In 843 AD, the territory of the Frankish kingdom was divided into three parts according to treaty of verdun. In the west, the Frankish kingdom on the left bank of the Rhine became the foundation of France. The eastern part, that is, the German-speaking Eastern Frankish Kingdom on the right bank of the Rhine River, became the foundation of the later Germanic Kingdom, the holy Roman Empire in the future, and the embryonic form of Germany today. The middle part became the root of the struggle between France and Germany. In 9 19, Herzogtum Von Sachsen Henry I was elected as the king of the eastern Frankish kingdom and established the Saxon dynasty. The Saxon dynasty was located in today's Holland, West Germany, Switzerland and Austria. Strictly speaking, the history of Germany has begun. 2 Modern Germany \ Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a country ruled by an emperor with actual power in the early days, and evolved into a political alliance of principality, vassal state, religious aristocratic territory and imperial free city in the middle ages. Its imperial country is called the Holy Roman Empire, because it claims to be the carrier of heaven, and the Germans believe that it dates back to the Roman Empire. After Charlemagne's death, the title of emperor of the Western Roman Empire has been held by Carolyn, the monarch of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom and the Western Frankish Kingdom in turn. However, after fat Charlie was deposed in 887, Caroline's empire collapsed and there was no reunification. Since Fat Charlie, the title holders of Roman emperors are mostly Italian kings crowned by the Pope. The actual rule of Italian kings is extremely limited, limited to the northeast of Italy, and almost all of those kings are local nobles in Italy. The last local king was belenguer I. Around 900, the local power of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom rose, forming four principalities: Saxony, Frankenia, Schwaben and Bavaria. 9 1 1 When Lu Yi, the last king of the Carolingian family, died in, the aristocrats of East Franks did not choose the Carolingian family of West Franks as the heir of Louis, but elected Conrad, Duke of Frankia, as the new king. On his deathbed, Conrad appointed Henry, the old enemy bird catcher, as his successor. In 9 19, Henry of Herzogtum Von Sachsen was elected king of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom among many dukes. After Henry's death, his son Otto succeeded him as the king of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom. In 962, Otto I, king of the Eastern Frankish and Otto Dynasties, was crowned emperor by Pope John XII in Rome. In 973, he became the guardian and emperor of Rome and the supreme ruler of the Roman Catholic world. 1 157, this empire was awarded the title of "Holy Empire". 1254, the empire began to use the title of "Holy Roman Empire" for the first time. 15 12 After the Cologne Imperial Conference, the imperial edict was issued to use the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation", which was used as an official name until 1806. In May, Napoleon declared himself emperor. The Holy Roman Emperor Franz Ii joined forces with Britain, Russia, Sweden and Naples to form the third anti-French alliance. 1805, the allied forces invaded Bavaria, an ally of France, and another allied force attacked Italy controlled by Napoleon. Napoleon crossed the Rhine from his native land. On February 2nd, 65438, in Austerlitz, the armies of France, Russia and the Holy Roman Empire fought a "Huang San War". The French army not only held Bavaria, but also invaded Moravia, the Holy Roman Empire, drove the allies out of Italy and defeated Russian reinforcements in Prussia. 65438+February 65438+June, France and the Holy Roman Empire signed the Pressburg Peace Treaty. After the signing of the peace treaty, Napoleon established the Rhine Federation with himself as lord protector, so as to consolidate his allies in Germany. 1806, 12 In July, under the coercion and inducement of Napoleon, the original 16 member countries of the Holy Roman Empire signed the Rhine-Bendak Treaty, leaving the Holy Roman Empire and joining the Confederacy. At the same time, Napoleon issued an ultimatum to Emperor Franz Ii, asking him to dissolve the Holy Roman Empire and give up the titles of the Holy Roman Emperor and the king of the Roman people. Finally,1On August 6th, 806, Franz Ii gave up the titles of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and King of the Roman people, and only retained the Austrian Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire officially perished. When discussing the history of its empire, Germans defined it as "the first empire"; It was related to the later German Empire (1871-1918) and Hitler's reign (1933- 1945). Reform Martin Luther published 95 papers against the sale of atonement vouchers, and later he initiated the reform in Germany at 15 17. Charles V of Habsburg Dynasty ascended the throne in 15 19. Not only did he fight the Ottoman Empire in Turkey, but he was also involved in a long war with France and the Pope. His position in the empire was weakened, and he could not stop the Reformation. From 1522 to 1526, Luther's theory spread in some cities and regions of the empire. The reform was carried out by the monarch. Ferdinand, the emperor's younger brother, could not tolerate Lutherans, and the lords who supported Protestantism once demonstrated. /kloc-in the 0/4th century, farmers broke out because of poverty. During the Reformation, from 1524 to 1526, it even developed into a German peasant war. 1525, under the leadership of menzel, the landlord system in Frankenhouse was abolished. In the Thirty Years' War, Germany was the main battlefield of the Thirty Years' War from 16 18 to 1648, and its economy suffered great damage. After the war, the internal divisions of the vassal states became irreversible, which indirectly made the Holy Roman Empire exist in name only. Li Sailiu's France won Alsace and Lorraine in this war, which laid a hidden danger for the future German-French war. The Rise of Prussia 170 1 year 1 month 18, Friedrich III (son of Friedrich William), the elector of Brandenburg, was crowned King Frederick I of Prussia in Konigsberg for supporting the Habsburg Dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire to declare war on the French Bourbon Dynasty. Since then, Prussia has become the king of Prussia. After the French Revolution, Prussia joined the anti-French alliance, but was defeated by the French army and forced to agree to France's annexation of Prussia territory west of the Rhine River in 1795. King Friedrich Wilhelm Ⅲ of Prussia (acceded to the throne in 1797) participated in the Anti-French War again in 1806+00, and was defeated by Napoleon in Jena and forced to flee to Koenigsberg. 1807, Prussia and France concluded a peace treaty in Tilsit, Nieman River, and Prussia ceded160,000 square kilometers of land, including most of Poland's territory (the second and third partition of Poland, the southern half of Poland's territory for the first time) and all the territory west of the Elbe River, and paid reparations1300,000 francs. After the fiasco of 1806, Prussian Prime Minister Carl Stein began to carry out reforms, including allowing citizens to participate in politics to awaken their nationalist feelings; Release serfs; Implement local autonomy; Reorganize central government agencies, etc. Friedrich Wilhelm University was founded in Berlin on 1809, and Gerhard von scharnhorst began to reform the Prussian army. Since then, Prussia's patriotism has been high. 18 12 winter, Napoleon's army was defeated from Russia, and Prussia joined the anti-French alliance again in the following year, and declared war on France in March 18 17, 10/0/October 24, Prussia, Austria and Russia. Pu Jun defeated the French again at Waterloo. According to the territorial adjustment of the Vienna Conference, Prussia's territory extended from the Meirmaier River to the Rhine River, becoming the only powerful country with German-speaking residents in the German Confederation and one of the European powers. 1806 After the demise of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Federation was established in 18 15, among which Prussia and Austria were the most powerful. Both Prussia and Austria wanted to lead the German unification by themselves, and then Prussia gradually gained the leadership. 1834, Prussia established the German Customs Union in Germany, and all German states joined the Union except Austria and Hamburg. 1848 Revolution 1848 The February Revolution in Paris promoted the March Revolution in the German city-state. Street fighting in Austria. On March 13, metternich stepped down and fled to Britain. Ferdinand I approved the new constitution in April 1848, allowing people to form armed forces. Uprising broke out in Hungary, Italy and Slavic regions, but it was quickly suppressed. Frederick William IV, the Prussian emperor, was forced by public pressure to amend the Constitution, recognizing people's freedom of assembly and speech. As for the small city-states, Baden tried to avoid revolution by appointing liberals to form a government. But with the further escalation of the revolution, Saxony and Baden became the centers of radical democratic revolution. At the beginning of May, all city-states held elections to elect representatives to the Frankfurt National Assembly. But only six city-states held direct elections. There are conservative royalists, liberals and Republicans in Congress. Workers and peasants have no representation at all. On May 18, 2008, an interim government was established, led by an interim head of state. The vassals also recognized the interim government, but the interim government did not have its own army, police and civil servants, and it was nominal. Frankfurt's National Assembly needs to demarcate Germany's borders in the future. At first, someone put forward a great German plan. However, it was later decided to adopt the little German scheme to establish a Germany that did not include Austria. 1849 On March 28th, after a long discussion, the charter of Peter's Church was finally adopted. According to the Constitution, a unified federation is established under the leadership of the central government, with the imperial parliament as the legislature and the hereditary emperor as the leader of the central government. This constitution is the basis of Weimar Constitution and German Basic Law. The right to vote was further confirmed. After Frederick William IV, the Prussian emperor, abdicated on April 2nd, all the city-states withdrew their representatives from Frankfurt. Dresden and Baden had a revolution to promote the constitution, but it was finally suppressed. Some delegates refused to be recalled and held further meetings in Stuttgart. The latest revolution took place in Rastad on July 23rd. The constitution will never be valid. Many people fled to America because of political persecution. German unification 187 1 Prussia Frederick William IV died and William I acceded to the throne. 1862, he clashed with the national assembly because of the budget and tax problems needed for military reform. He intended to abdicate, but at the suggestion of former ambassador to France Bismarck, he withdrew his life. Bismarck expressed his support for military reform and said that if he was appointed as Prime Minister, he would force military reform and a new military service system at all costs. 1862 On September 22nd, William I appointed Bismarck as Prime Minister. Bismarck's appointment as Prime Minister marked the beginning of German unification. 1864, Prussia defeated Denmark and recovered many territories near the Danish border in the north. Prussia 1866 defeated Austria and forced Austria and Hungary to form the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Several states were merged to form the North German Federation. 1870, the Franco-Prussian War broke out, and many southern German states broke away from French control. By 187 1, Germany announced the completion of reunification and the establishment of the German Empire, also known as the "German Second Reich". During World War I in modern Germany, a few years before the war broke out, Alfred von Schlieffen, the German chief of staff, made a Schrieffen plan characterized by quick victory: firstly, using Germany's developed railway network, concentrating superior forces to defeat France within six weeks, and then deploying troops to attack Russia on the eastern front. Accordingly, France also formulated the 17th plan, which went hand in hand with the two army groups and was ceded to Germany's Alsace and Lorraine provinces after the Franco-Prussian War. However, the development of the war was beyond the expectation of these military strategists, making both plans infeasible. 1965438+On August 2, 2004, the German army sent troops to neutral Luxembourg to acquire Luxembourg's railway network. On August 3rd, the Germans declared war on Belgium. By August 9, the Germans successfully captured the whole territory of Belgium and expelled the French army in Belgium back to France. On August 2 1 day, the Germans attacked northern France in five ways, and the French army fell and was forced to retreat. On September 3rd, the German army had advanced to Paris, and the French government was forced to retreat to Bordeaux. On September 5- 12, the Battle of the Marne River broke out between the German army and the British and French allied forces on the front line of the Marne River in the suburbs of Paris. As a result, both sides lost, the Germans had to turn to strategic defense and stick to the front line of the Anna River, and the battle began to evolve into positional warfare. Then, a mobile war broke out between the two sides towards the sea, and the British and French Coalition forces were defeated. The Germans successfully captured a large territory in the northeast of France, but they could never cut off the transportation line between Britain and France. Later, the battle of Flanders broke out between the two sides, but neither side achieved any remarkable results. Thus, the war entered a stalemate stage. 19 15 In the spring, the British and French allied forces launched two rounds of offensives, Shambani and Aldao Ismail, and the main force of the German army concentrated on the eastern front. However, due to outdated tactics and lack of strong fire cover, the Germans successfully resisted and suffered heavy casualties. In April of that year, the Germans counterattacked and used poison gas for the first time, and the losses on both sides were even more serious. As a result, on the western front of 19 15, the British and French allied forces suffered one million casualties, and the Germans also suffered 6 10000 casualties, but the war remained deadlocked. 19 16 In February, the pressure on the eastern front was slightly reduced, and the German main force moved to the western front again, and a battle broke out with the French army in Verdun. As a result, after more than seven months of fierce fighting, the Germans still failed to capture Verdun. In order to balance the Germans, the British and French allied forces broke out the Battle of the Somme with the Germans in early July of that year, and the situation was even more tragic. Although the British army used tanks for the first time in this war, after about1.2000 casualties on both sides, there was still no major breakthrough in the war, which lasted until165438+1October of that year, and the western front was deadlocked again, but the allies began to take the initiative in the war. 1965438+On February 3, 2007, because Germany used unrestricted submarine warfare, many American ships were sunk and the United States broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. On February 24th, the American ambassador to Britain, Page, received the decrypted Qi Merman telegram, which said that if Mexico declared war on the United States, Germany would help to return the southwestern United States to Mexico, so the United States declared war on Germany on April 6th. 1965438+from August to September 2008, the Germans lost 15000 men, more than 2000 cannons and 13000 machine guns. The news of military failure has intensified the contradictions in Germany. In September, Marshal Hindenburg proposed "ending the war" in the German Parliament. However, the German high command is still unwilling to give up and intends to use the remaining naval vessels to carry out the final decisive battle with the British Navy. As a result, German sailors defected in Kiel Port because they didn't want to die, and it soon spread to the whole navy and the whole country. 165438+1On 9 October, a revolution also took place in Berlin, the German capital, and the German emperor William II had to abdicate and flee to the Netherlands. 165438+1October 1 1, the Germans made peace, and the first world war ended. The Treaty of Versailles put all the responsibility for waging war on Germany, thus imposing extremely severe economic and military sanctions on Germany. Germany lost 65,438+03% of its territory and 65,438+02% of its population, and was disarmed. The Germans are controlled below 65438+ 10,000 people and are not allowed to have an air force. However, although Germany was finally defeated in World War I, its vitality was not greatly damaged, its industrial system was still intact, and its native land was not affected by the war. The Treaty of Versailles gave too much consideration to the distribution of the interests of the victorious countries, but completely ignored the interests of the defeated countries. In addition, the unprecedented harshness and predation of the treaty led to the crazy devaluation of the German currency, which made German nationals strongly resist and hate the treaty imposed on them, thus triggering a strong national revenge among the German people. In order to get rid of the bondage of the Treaty of Versailles, various political forces and ideas fought against each other in Germany, which was particularly fierce. With the cooperation of various factors, under the leadership of Hitler's Nazi Party, an unprecedented World War II finally broke out in Germany. Weimar and the post-war Weimar Republic were efforts to establish a peaceful, free and democratic regime on German soil. However, the Weimar government was doomed from the beginning to be trapped in economic problems and the inherent defects of its own Weimar Constitution. In the first few years, Weimar * * and China had to be busy dealing with the left-wing and right-wing rebellion and the serious inflation of 1923. Next, with the gradual easing of relations between Germany and wartime enemy countries and the relaxation of compensation debts, the situation improved. Thanks to Gustav Strezeman, Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, the Allies restored order and prosperity to a certain extent. This prosperity continued until the Great Depression of 1930. After that, the economic recession, the memory of 1923' s excessive inflation and the nationalist opposition caused by the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles destroyed the Weimar government from both inside and outside. Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist Workers' Party took advantage of this reality and the rising unemployment rate. The Nazis constantly emphasized ethnic and racial issues and promised to let the unemployed get jobs again. They blamed many problems in Germany on the so-called Jewish conspiracy, and even claimed that the failure of World War I was caused by internal collusion. During World War II, the huge reparations of World War I made Weimar and China's democracy and government unable to bear it. The failure to solve social problems such as the Great Depression and unemployment (such as the riots of the left and soldiers and workers) made many Germans turn to the right, and Hitler's Nazi party was one of the extreme right. Hitler promised to reduce unemployment and carry out economic, cultural and military reforms. 1929, after the outbreak of the world economic crisis, Weimar political situation began to turn to fascism. 1October 30th, Paul von Hindenburg, the second president of Weimar, appointed Hitler as German Chancellor. After Hitler came to power, he began to practice white terror at home, brutally suppressed dissidents, and practiced fascist dictatorship through the stormtroopers, the SS, the Gestapo and their labor camps and concentration camps all over the country. Hitler came to power by advocating strong populism, and began to oppress Jews crazily after he came to power. 1933 On February 27th, after the arson in Congress, Hitler claimed to be the second largest party in Congress, the * * * Production Party (also the main political enemy of the Nazi Party), arrested the leader of the * * * Production Party, mobilized the stormtroopers to occupy all the departments of the * * * Production Party in the country and banned party member from participating in the parliamentary elections in early March, and the Nazi Party won. 1933 1 In September, Hitler first used "the Third Reich" to refer to Germany under his rule at the Nazi Party Congress held in Nuremberg. This country has been "a thousand years". 1 93365438+February1The Law on Ensuring the Unity of the Party and the State was adopted to establish the Third Reich of Germany. . On August 1934, 1 passed the German Fuehrer's Law, which strengthened the fascist dictatorship. 1934 After Paul von Hindenburg's death on August 2nd, Hitler took control of Germany, abolished the presidential system, became the head of Germany, and sent 100000 spies to monitor domestic critics and dissidents. Hitler brought the national economy into the track of war and accelerated the pace of rearmament. At that time, Germany's overall economy was improved because of the Nazi party's war economic plan, and the people's living standards were also greatly improved. But many political opponents, especially industrialists and some socialists, were sent to concentration camps. It is estimated that thousands of political victims died or disappeared during the initial Nazi rule. 1935, 16 In March, Hitler broke through the blockade of the Treaty of Versailles, announced the implementation of universal compulsory military service and established an army of 500,000 people. The following year, he announced the implementation of the "four-year plan" presided over by Goering, and the industrial development rate exceeded that of western countries. 1936 On March 7, Hitler drove the Germans into the unarmed zone of the Rhine River and participated in the Spanish Civil War in July. 165438+1On October 25th, Germany and Japan concluded the International Convention on the Prohibition of Production. 1March 938, Germany annexed Austria. In September, at the Munich Conference, Hitler said that "Germany has no territorial claim after acquiring the Sudetenland" and signed the Munich Agreement driven by the appeasement policy of Britain and France. In June 5438+10, Germany broke the contract and occupied Czechoslovakia. 1939 On May 22nd, Germany and Italy concluded an iron and steel alliance in Berlin. At this point, the three countries formally formed an alliance, known as the axis countries. On July 1939 and 10, the propaganda minister Goebbels officially announced that it was abandoned and replaced by "Gross-German Empire". 1 September, 9391day, the German blitzkrieg attacked Poland, and World War II officially began, and then quickly occupied Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. 1940, defeated the British and French allied forces and occupied France. Then it occupied Yugoslavia and Greece. At the end of World War II, according to Hitler's will, Deng Nici Admiral of the fleet, commander of the Northern Theater, was the president and Goebbels, the propaganda minister, was the prime minister. But Goebbels committed suicide immediately after Hitler committed suicide, and soon Deng Nici surrendered to the Allies. 1June 6, 944, the United States and Britain landed in Normandy, France. 1On May 8, 945, Germany announced its unconditional surrender and the "German Third Reich" ended. During the Cold War, Nazi Germany was defeated in World War II. According to the secret agreement of Britain, the United States, France and the Soviet Union at the Potsdam Conference in wartime, it was decided to divide Germany into four parts, which were occupied by four victorious countries respectively, and to form the highest management unit, the Allied Control Committee (ACC), to manage German affairs. However, due to the differences in ideas, the western camp dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union gradually alienated after the war. 1948 in March, the United States, Britain and France held a meeting in London and initially decided to merge the German territories under the jurisdiction of the three countries to form the West German regime. In this regard, the Soviet Union made a counter-measure, first withdrawing from ACC, and then announcing the establishment of the East German regime. However, the fuse that directly led to the separation of East and West Germany occurred on June 20, 1948, which was a historical period for the West and contemporary Germany (Federal Republic of Germany). According to Berlin/Bonn Act,1March 1994, Berlin became the capital of Germany again, and the integration of the federal government was not completed until 1999; On the other hand, Bonn gained the status of a federal city. At present, six federal administrative departments, including the Ministry of National Defense and the Ministry of Agriculture, are located in Bonn, which is the second largest political center in Germany. In June 2005, Angela Merkel, leader of Christian Democratic Union, was elected as German Chancellor, becoming the first female Chancellor in German history.