What are the characteristics of pre-Qin Confucianism?

Confucianism is born as a scholar, and it is its duty to educate and train scholars (gentlemen). Scholars are also "officials". Mencius said: "The official position of a scholar is better than that of a farmer" (Mencius Teng Wengong), which means that a scholar comes out to serve the society as an official, just like a farmer is engaged in farming.

Zi Gong once asked Confucius how to be a scholar, that is, what should a scholar do? Confucius said, "It's a shame for scholars to make the quartet live up to your orders." (The Analects of Confucius Lutz) This answer not only shows the official status of a scholar, but also points out the most important point as a scholar. Second, it is necessary to "make the Quartet live up to its mission", that is, to be able to complete the tasks assigned by the monarch in terms of talent. The former is a requirement for scholars' moral quality, while the latter is a requirement for their practical ability. The unity of these two aspects is the image of a qualified taxi, that is, a perfect Confucianism. Xunzi wrote an article entitled "The Role of Confucianism", which described the image and social role of Confucianism. "American politics" should "make good use of the world" and formulate various etiquette norms and political and legal systems for the society to stabilize social order and the lives of the rich.

Based on the above analysis of the basic social mission of Confucian gentlemen, it can be said that the main content of primitive Confucianism is about the moral norms of Confucian self-cultivation and the political principle of governing the country. Moreover, all kinds of moral norms and principles of governing the country put forward by Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi are very specific norms and principles practiced in life, rather than general abstract metaphysical principles.

It is reasonable for people to call Confucius' knowledge "benevolence", because Confucius regards "benevolence" as the most fundamental moral norm of a gentleman. For example, he said, "A gentleman is not as good as fame? If a gentleman has no final food, he will violate benevolence, so he will have expectations and be uneasy. " The Analects of Confucius recorded many Confucius' remarks about answering disciples' questions about benevolence, all of which were specific norms and principles to be followed in behavior practice. For example:

When answering Fan Chi's question about benevolence, he said, "A benevolent person should strive for it first" (Yongye) and "Love" (Yan Yuan) are the benevolent people.

Answering Yan Yuan's question about benevolence, he said, "Self-denial is benevolence." (Yan Yuan)

In the answer, the official said, "Going out as a distinguished guest makes the people like a big sacrifice. Do as you would be done by. You have no complaints at home and no complaints at home. " (Yan Yuan)

When answering Sima Niu's question about benevolence, he said, "A benevolent person is not sincere in his words." (Yan Yuan)

Answer Zhang Wenren: "Being able to do five things in the world (courtesy, tolerance, faithfulness, sensitivity and kindness) is benevolence." (Yang Huo)

Another example is as the saying goes: "Clever words make color, fresh benevolence." ("Xue Ji Yang Huo") "Rigid, resolute, dull, dull and close to benevolence." ("Xianwen") and "Filial piety is also the foundation of benevolence!" Learning, etc., are all normative principles observed in concrete practice.

The Analects of Confucius also records a lot of Confucius' remarks about answering questions and taking part in politics, which are also very specific norms and principles to be observed in practice, such as:

When answering Zi Gong's question about politics, he said, "With enough food and soldiers, the people will believe him." (Yan Yuan)

When Qi Jinggong asked about politics, he said, "Jun Jun, minister, father, son." (Yan Yuan)

He replied to Zhang Wenzheng: "Live tirelessly and act faithfully." (Yan Yuan)

Ji Kangzi asked about politics and said, "Politicians are upright. Handsome and upright, who dares to be upright? " Then he said, "Why kill a son for politics? Children should be good people, and the people are good. A gentleman is virtuous, but a villain is virtuous. The wind on the grass will be suppressed. " (Yan Yuan)

When answering Lutz's question about politics, he said, "First of all, be diligent" and "be tireless" (Lutz).

Answering Zhong Gong's question about politics, he said, "Be a company first, forgive small mistakes and promote talents." (Luz)

When answering Ye Gong's question about politics, someone said, "Those who are near are happy, and those who are far away come." Another said, "Haste makes waste. Haste makes haste, but there is no big deal when you see small profits. " (Luz)

When answering Zhang Wen's question about politics, he said: "Respect five beauties, screen four evils, and you can go into politics." (Yao Yue) Wait.

In addition to further developing Confucius' thought of self-cultivation, Mencius is also famous for advocating "benevolent government", and its content is also very specific. For example, "a benevolent government must start from the economic circle", and the so-called "heavy boundary" means "dividing land to control wealth" and "controlling people without changing production" (. Mencius, such as the official and scholar Lu, who closed the city to scorn but didn't levy, couldn't help polishing the beam and not punishing the sinner (Xiawang), and "respecting the virtuous and enabling" (On Ugly Sun), also theoretically explained why he wanted benevolence and why he might be benevolent. But most of his theoretical explanations are perceptual and intuitive. As he thinks, this heart originates from politics, that is, the basis of benevolent governance is demonstrated by "benevolent governance", and the possibility of benevolent governance is illustrated by the theory of "benevolent people love what they love and what they don't love" ("wholeheartedly") and "old people are old and teenagers are young" ("Hui Liang Wang Shang").

Although the practical norms and principles put forward by Confucius and Mencius in governing the country by self-cultivation are very specific, they also contain strong idealistic elements, that is to say, they place more hope on the consciousness of human nature. Therefore, Confucius strongly emphasized "self-denial", "self-cultivation" and "benevolence for oneself", while Mencius believed that as long as it continued to expand.

Compared with Confucius and Mencius, Xunzi's thought is more realistic. While paying attention to the education of etiquette and morality, he also emphasized the punishment function of the political and legal system. He believes that human nature is not so beautiful, and the natural development of human nature will inevitably lead to social chaos. Therefore, it is necessary to guide people's natural nature with courtesy, that is, to "turn nature into falsehood", and then make it conform to the importance of self-cultivation and moral consciousness in group society. At the same time, Xunzi emphasized the educational and normative functions of "teacher" and "law". For example, he said: "The nature of modern people is that they are born with good interests and obedience, so they fight for life and give up their lives and die;" Born with disease and evil, follow it, so thieves are born with loyalty to death; Born with eyes and ears, with good expression, it is appropriate, so fornication is born with courtesy, righteousness and arts. But from the human nature, obedience to human feelings will be attributed to violence because of competition. Therefore, there must be ways to take the law, courtesy and righteousness, and then out of words, then the combination of arts and sciences will rule it. " (Xunzi, theory of evil nature) teacher, so it is a ceremony. How can rudeness be honest? I can be polite without a teacher. ""So, don't be indecent, self-taught, make good use of me. For example, I still blindly distinguish colors and voices, and there is no chaos. " ("Xunzi's Cultivation")

Similarly, Xunzi's principles of governing the country, such as "distinguishing groups" and "living together in one way", include the ideal specific strategies of "monarchical power" and "enriching the country" and "strengthening the country". Even his "theory of ceremony", "theory of music" and "rule of monarch" can be said to be very realistic, and they are all affirmed to have been formed at that time. So as to achieve the harmony of the whole society. Of course, this does not mean that there is no idealism in Xunzi's principle of governing the country, because if there is no idealism in his theory, then his theory will not have any attraction and he cannot be called a thinker.

Primitive Confucianism, from the end of the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, is one of the "outstanding schools" with wide influence in society. The theory of moral cultivation advocated by them has a far-reaching influence on the "scholar" class, but the ideal political system and the principle of governing the country they designed, because of their main spirit, that is, national unity and the supremacy of etiquette and law, are too divorced from the social reality of feudal hegemony and separatism at that time. Therefore, the original Confucianism is different from the Confucianism that later became the basis of the actual social system. It's just a general theory about moral cultivation and political ideals. In our discussion below, people will see that it is very important to distinguish this difference.

. 1. "rule by courtesy" doctrine

The fundamental meaning of Confucian "rule by courtesy" is "difference", that is, dignity, seniority and seniority all have their own special codes of conduct. Only when dignity, respect, respect and intimacy have their own rituals can we achieve the ideal society of Jun Jun, minister, father, son, brother, brother, husband and wife in the eyes of Confucianism. The governance of a country depends on.

Confucian "rule by virtue"

2. "Rule by virtue" advocates moral education. Confucianism believes that people can be influenced and educated by morality without being bound by human nature. This kind of education is a kind of psychological transformation, which makes people feel good and know shame but not evil. This is the most thorough, fundamental and positive way, which is beyond the reach of legal sanctions.

Confucian "rule by man"

3. The principle of "rule by man" is to attach importance to the particularity of man, his possible moral development and his sympathy, and to manage his rule as a changeable "man" with complex choice initiative and ethics. From this perspective, the principle of "rule by virtue" is closely related to the principle of "rule by man".

4. Confucius's "benevolence"

Confucius' thought is profound, the core of which is the word "benevolence", which appears 104 times in The Analects of Confucius, which shows that it occupies an extremely important position in Confucius' theory. "Shuo Wen Jie Zi" notes: "Benevolence, affinity, obedience, two." Literally, "benevolence" refers to the friendly relationship between people. Confucius turned it into a moral category, thinking that "the benevolent is also human." (The Book of Rites. "Benevolence" is the foundation of human beings, a mutual understanding of life, and a universal connection and mutual nourishment between people, me and the group, me and me. The specific meaning of "benevolence" is as follows: First, it says "benevolence, love." Everyone has "benevolence", can voice the sufferings and joys of others, and has extensive sympathy. But Confucius also said that according to Zhou Li's regulations, all kinds of people have different identities, and their love for the monarch and a common people is "equal", that is, they adopt different attitudes according to their identities.

The second is to have the spirit of tolerance, loyalty and forgiveness: on the one hand, we must strive to achieve "we have tried to stand up and stand up, and we have tried to reach people." (The Analects of Confucius. If you want to achieve something and achieve a certain goal, you must think that others have the same desire and try to fulfill others. This is called "loyalty"; On the other hand, we should strive to "do to others what you don't want others to do to you." (The Analects of Confucius Yan Yuan) Don't impose what you don't like on others. In other words, put yourself in the other's shoes, try your best, and always put yourself in the other's shoes. This is called forgiveness.

Confucius believes that when there is a contradiction between "benevolence" and "life", "people with lofty ideals are benevolent, and they have to kill themselves to become benevolent." Some scholars believe that Confucius put forward the idea of "benevolence", which was the first discovery of "man". He liberated "man" from the bondage of "heaven" and put it in human society. It can also be a manifestation of human beings moving from ignorance to civilization.

5. Other thoughts of Confucius

Confucius also put forward the ideas of "rule by virtue", "golden mean" and "use it with courtesy, and harmony is precious". His thought is idealistic, but his view of heaven is vague. He once said: "Life is alive and wealth is in the sky." "A gentleman has three fears: fear of destiny, fear of adults, and fear of the words of saints." (The Analects of Confucius. ")" Sacrifice a god like a god. " "I have committed a heinous crime, and there is nothing to pray for." (The Analects of Confucius Eight Shu) But some people say, "What is the word of Heaven? At four o'clock, everything is born. " "If you can't do things for people, how can you do things for ghosts?" "If you don't know life, you won't know death. Therefore, his disciples said that he "didn't talk about the confusion between Machamp and God" (The Analects of Confucius) and "stayed away from ghosts and gods". ("Yong Ye")

In epistemology, Confucius once put forward the transcendental theory of "being born with knowledge", saying that "being wise" and "being stupid" remain unchanged. But at the same time, he thinks that most people, including himself, are not born knowing, but learning and knowing.

6. Eight schools of Confucianism

After the death of Confucius, his disciples and his disciples inherited and developed Confucius' thoughts from different angles and formed different schools. Han Feizi said that Confucianism can be divided into eight parts, including Confucianism, Confucianism, Confucianism, Confucianism, Confucianism, Confucianism, Confucianism and Confucianism. Zhang Zi's surname is Zhuan Sun, a famous teacher. His name is Zhang Zi. He was "punished" and later studied Confucianism with Confucius. He inherited Confucius' thought of caring for others and advocated "respecting the virtuous" and "worshiping the good", but at the same time he expanded "loving others" to "accommodating the masses" and "regretting incompetence", regardless of good or bad, and he also let bygones be bygones for those who are not virtuous and repaid good with good. This is not in line with Confucius' thought that love is equal and love can be evil, but closer to Mohism's thought of universal love. Therefore, Confucius thinks that "there are many teachers" and "too much is not enough".

Zi Si Confucianism is a Confucian school represented by Confucius' grandson Kong Zi. He studied under Zeng Shen, a disciple of Confucius. Zeng Shen is famous for advocating loyalty and filial piety, and Xiao Jing is Zeng Shen's masterpiece. Zisi takes "the virtue of Ming saints" as his own responsibility. He wrote 23 books, and The Doctrine of the Mean is the main work of Zisi School. "Emotions and sorrows are not expressed, but expressed in the middle of the festival. The winner is the great book of heaven and earth; He who is harmonious achieves the way of the world. Neutral, the status of Heaven is awkward, and everything breeds. " When we reach a neutral state, everything in the universe and human society will have their place. Confucianism advocates the so-called "extremely bright golden mean" spirit, that is, a spirit in which greatness lies in the ordinary and ideal lies in reality. This proposition makes Confucianism close to social reality, which is an important stage in the development of Confucianism. Therefore, some people think that Confucianism is a Confucian school that connects the past with the future.

Yan's Confucianism is a school of Confucianism inherited by Yan Hui, Confucius' favorite pupil. Yan Hui worships Confucius the most, and Confucius worships Yan Hui the most. Yan Hui accepted and disseminated all the thoughts of Confucius to the letter and put them into practice. However, it is too rigid in imitating the law and has no original creation of its own, so it does not occupy its own position in the history of Confucianism like Mencius and Xunzi.

Qi Diao's Confucianism refers to Qi Tiaokai's Confucianism. He was disabled and studied under Confucius. Later, he accepted lectures from his disciples and became a school of his own. He took a firm attitude on the Shang Yong issue and regarded benevolence and righteousness as the absolute code of conduct. Confucianism believes that the standard of taking benevolence and righteousness as the principle of justice is great wisdom; It is great courage to turn back without hesitation. Therefore, later generations called Qi Diaokai's Confucianism the Confucianism of great wisdom and courage.

Up to now, there is no unified conclusion about who music is. Liang Qichao thought it was Le Zhengzi Chun, and Guo Moruo thought it was Mencius' student Ke. The book "University" compiled by Ke School has made an important contribution to the development of Confucianism.

Mencius' Confucianism is represented by Mencius, while Sun Shi's Confucianism is represented by Xunzi. What Zhong Liang's Confucianism refers to is unknown.

Mencius, His Confucianism and Thoughts on Mencius

1. Meng Si School

Confucius and Mencius refers to the Confucian school represented by Zeng Shen, Zi Si and Monk, which has the greatest influence on later generations. Monk is a descendant of Sun Shi (37 BC1-289 BC), a disciple of Zisi, and a famous representative of Confucianism after the death of Confucius, so Confucianism is also called the way of Confucius and Mencius. Mencius' works are also called Mencius. Taking "benevolence and righteousness" as the highest criterion of moral behavior, the core of Mencius' theory is to put forward the theory of good nature, advocate king's benevolent government politically, and advocate the people-oriented principle of valuing the people over the monarch.

2. Confucian concept of justice and benefit

The concept of justice and benefit is the basic view of Confucianism on the relationship between justice and benefit. Therefore, Confucius put forward the proposition that "the gentleman is righteous and the villain is beneficial", which later developed into "the debate between righteousness and benefit". Mencius inherited and spread Confucius' thoughts, and advocated that benevolence and righteousness should guide his actions and righteousness should be the criterion. When there is a contradiction between "righteousness" and "profit", he advocates emphasizing righteousness over profit, emphasizing righteousness over profit, and benefiting from profit. He even suggested, "Madam, you don't have to believe what you say, and what you do doesn't have to be fruitful." Under Li Lou, he thought that righteousness was not only more important than Billy, but also more important than life. If you can't have righteousness and life at the same time, you should not hesitate to "sacrifice your life for righteousness." Xunzi also believes that "righteousness" is more important than "benefit": "Justice before honor, benefit before righteousness is humiliation." "Righteousness is the rule of the world, and benefit is the chaos of the world."

3. Four purposes of virtue

Mencius believes that "benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom" are the four ends of virtue, that is, everyone is born with four excellent qualities. "Compassion is the purpose of benevolence; The heart of shame and evil, the end of righteousness; The words of the heart are the end of the ceremony; The heart of right and wrong is also the end of wisdom. " (On Gong Sunchou) Because it is an innate quality of human beings, it is called "good knowledge and good ability". If people can consciously expand their innate "four virtues", they will form "four virtues" and thus become "benevolent people" who distinguish right from wrong and stress propriety and righteousness.

4. the theory of good nature

In the era of Mencius' life, there are four views on human nature: one is Mencius' theory of good nature; Second, repentance is neither good nor bad; Third, there are good and bad natures; Fourth, there are good and bad sex. One or three is the theory of innate human nature, and two or four is the theory of acquired human nature. Mencius thought: "Benevolence and wisdom do not come from the outside, but are inherent in me." ("Gao Zi Shang")

5. Wang Dao and the "First French King"

Mencius advocated kingliness in politics and opposed hegemony, that is, advocated implementation, which was based on the theory of good nature.

Yao Shunyu, Wu Wen, Duke Zhou and Confucius advocated the so-called sage way. Therefore, he advocated "the king before the law" and opposed "the king after the law", that is, he advocated imitating the former king and taking the former king as an example. However, his so-called "first king of France" does not want to restore "Zhou Li" intact, but "reforms the ancient system" in the name of "Zhou Li". He said that the five tyrants in the Spring and Autumn Period were sinners of the former king, and the warring states governors were sinners of the five tyrants. In short, each generation is worse than the next. To rule the world, we must follow what he called "Wang Zhidao first".

6. "Benevolent politics" thought

Mencius believes that the core of kingly way is "benevolent government", and "the world cannot be governed by benevolent government." (On Li Lou) What is "benevolent government"? To sum up, there are the following points:

First, "benevolent governance must start from the economic border", that is, the well-field system is implemented economically.

Second, advocate "saving punishment and taxes" and "making people serve the time"

Third, after the people are rich, they advocate teaching the people.

Fourthly, it advocates "dividing land to build land", that is, restoring the feudal system of the clan through dividing land.

Fifth, it advocates that "the people are the most important, the country is the second, and the monarch is the least" ("wholeheartedly"), and advocates the establishment of a new relationship between the monarch and the people.

Sixth, oppose all wars and reforms. "Those who are good at fighting are punished, followed by those who are even governors, followed by those who cut grass and land." ("On Li Lou")

In a word, the economic base: well field system; Superstructure: enfeoffment system, stone clearing system and patriarchal clan system; Reduce the burden on the people internally, advocate enriching the people and teaching them, and advocate that the people are more valuable than the monarch; Oppose the policy of legalism to reform and cultivate land; Oppose all wars and unite with Lian Heng. This is the main content of Mencius' "benevolent politics".

Thirdly, Xunzi's political proposition of "one family under heaven" and his unique view on fate and human nature.

1. Xunzi's political proposition of "one country under the sun"

The core of Xunzi's political proposition is "the world is one" (Xiangcheng). He traveled around the world and repeatedly publicized this idea, thinking that "I should let the princes rule the world" (Wang Ba) and "I feel like a cosmopolitan family" (Confucianism). How can we make the princes and ministers unify the world and the world? He put forward various political theories, which can be summed up in three main ways, namely, respecting ceremony and valuing law, making Shang Xian, and respecting righteousness and loving the people.

The so-called "respecting the law by courtesy" means combining the advantages of Confucianism and Legalism, combining the rule of courtesy with the rule of law, and skillfully applying the policies of "education" and "punishment". Here, Xunzi is obviously different from Confucius and Mencius: Confucius and Mencius advocate the rule of courtesy and virtue, and think that only courtesy can treat people, not punishment (The Analects of Confucius). Xunzi thought: "If you teach without punishing, you will not punish traitors." (Rich Country) If we only pay attention to the ceremony and not the law, we can't be polite, or we don't strictly enforce the law, and we won't be rewarded or punished properly, which will lead to social chaos.

Xunzi pointed out that "courtesy" is the necessity of the continuous development and progress of human society. "People are born with desires, desires but not desires, desires without measurement, and cannot argue. Struggle is chaos, and chaos is poverty. The late king hated the chaos, so he divided the courtesy and righteousness to nurture people's desires and give them desires. " (Book of Rites)

At the same time of "long ceremony", Xunzi also advocated emphasizing the law. He believes that the two are not antagonistic, but complementary. Etiquette focuses on education, and law focuses on rewards and punishments. In order to safeguard national interests and social stability, junior high school students must "educate with courtesy, rule the country by law, and prohibit with severe punishment."

In order to realize the political ideal of "one family in the world", Xunzi advocated "the king after the law" and opposed Mencius' "the king before the law". He believes that Mencius' proposition of "king before the law" is "king before the law to deceive fools" and "full of chaos" (Confucian effect), which can only cause social chaos. Although he also said that he would follow Yao Shun's example, he clearly pointed out that "a hundred Wang Zhidao, the queen is also." ("Strict") Xunzi's "post-king law" essentially advocates the implementation of the political and economic system of the emerging landlord class.

3. Xunzi's view of heaven and man

On the issue of the relationship between heaven and man, Xunzi neither agreed to regard heaven as the day of personality, nor did Confucius and Mencius agree to regard heaven as the day of fate, but absorbed the Taoist thought of natural heaven and put forward the materialistic view of heaven and man.

First of all, he believes that it is necessary to "clearly distinguish between heaven and man" (the theory of heaven), that is, to distinguish between heaven and man, nature and society in practice and theory. He pointed out that the so-called "sky" is nothing more than natural phenomena such as the sun, the moon, the stars, the four seasons, yin and yang, cold and everything, and it is a material sky, not a sky with personality and will. The role of heaven and the role of man cannot replace each other. "The stars go around, the sun and the moon shine, the emperors at four o'clock, the yin and yang are magnified, and the wind and rain are generous", and the stars fall silently, "The sun and the moon are eclipsed, and the strange stars are seen at times", all of which are the functions of heaven, but people know it but don't know why. The rise and fall of society, the wealth of individuals, all depend on personnel, and have nothing to do with heaven.

Secondly, Xunzi believes that "one day, it will not be for Yao's sake, nor for Yi's sake. It is advisable to be good at governance and to be violent. " (The Theory of Heaven) The change of nature has its own laws, and it is not transferred by human will. The good or ill luck lies in people, not in heaven. The changes in nature are endless, such as "four seasons monarchy, yin and yang are born together", "heaven and earth combine to create everything, and yin and yang are born with a change" (Book of Rites). The reason why everything in heaven and earth is ever-changing is caused by its internal contradictory movement. This is heaven and tunnel.

Thirdly, Xunzi believes that man can "control the destiny and use it" (the theory of heaven), that is, master the laws of nature and use heaven to serve mankind. "The big day, think about it, what is this made of? It is better to praise it from the sky than to control fate and use it? Look forward to it and make it timely? " He believes that "if you are strong, you will be frugal, and the sky will not be poor; If you are prepared, you can't get sick. " "So, floods and droughts can't make you hungry, and the cold department can't make you sick." (On Heaven) This idea of controlling and using fate and using and controlling nature to serve mankind reached the highest level of materialism in the pre-Qin period.

4. Theory of evil nature

The problem of human nature is one of the signs that pre-Qin philosophers attach importance to people's own value. Both Mencius' theory of good nature and Xunzi's theory of evil nature are reasonable, but they failed to answer this question correctly. Mencius focused on people's social attributes and believed that people's innate nature was good. As long as we strengthen our self-cultivation, we can maintain this kindness and become a saint and a gentleman. Xunzi, on the other hand, focuses on the natural attributes of human beings, and thinks that people "eat when they are hungry, clothe when they are cold, and rest when they are tired" (honor and disgrace), "have lustful eyes, good ears, good taste, good heart and good health" (evil nature), and are born with "good benefits and bad harms" (honor and disgrace), and think that "learning is insufficient" and learning is endless. Only by persevering, constantly learning and constantly correcting one's own evil deeds can one become a gentleman and an outstanding talent. On the point of attaching importance to education, Xunzi and Mencius can be said to reach the same goal by different routes, but on the contrary, they complement each other: Mencius' theory of good nature demonstrates the possibility of people accepting feudal etiquette, and regards "educating talents in the world" as the greatest pleasure in life; Xunzi's theory of evil nature focuses on the necessity of people obeying feudal ethics, and his articles such as Persuading Learning, Self-cultivation and Theory of Evil Nature have become important historical documents in the history of education in China. Their educational thoughts still have great inspiration for future generations.