Senior one history

1. the political characteristics of feudal society in western Europe and its reasons

(A) the formation of feudal society in Western Europe

In 476 AD, the demise of the Western Roman Empire was an important transition from slavery to feudalism in Western Europe.

Mark, to 1 1 century, the feudal process in western Europe was basically completed. For a century.

In this process, on the one hand, the disintegration of Germanic rural communes and the formation of dependent farmers; On the other hand, it is a seal.

The gradual establishment of relations of production. These are two aspects of one thing in the process of feudalism in western Europe.

It became the main clue to the establishment of early feudal society in western Europe. Compared with some civilized countries in the East, Western Europe is closed.

It was quite backward in the early days of the establishment of the society, because Christianity and some rags were left over from ancient times.

This city. The serf manor with underdeveloped production, weak commodity circulation and occlusion was the main economic fine at that time.

Cells and grass-roots political organizations. Feudal separatism, the decline of kingship, the whole spiritual and cultural field are monks.

Monopoly and the continuous struggle of working people against serfdom were both feudal societies in early Western Europe.

The main features of the meeting.

The Decline of Western Roman Empire and the Establishment of Germanic Kingdom

The crisis of slavery in the Western Roman Empire and the germination of feudal relations from the 3rd century to the 5th century were all western.

The crisis of slavery in the Roman Empire was always exposed, and feudal factors were bred in the matrix of the empire.

For a long time. The pagoda movement that swept Gaul and Spain shocked the Agonistes Slave Congress in North Africa.

The uprising took place in this period. These uprisings dealt a heavy blow to the reactionary rule of the slave-owning class.

The countryside was barren, the cities withered, and the large-scale slave plunder war was forced to stop. The source of slaves has dried up, and the price

In the 3rd century A.D., a robust slave sold 300 to 500 silver coins. large-scale

Using slave labor is not only unprofitable, but also extremely dangerous. In this case, the manor land was divided.

Cutting it into small pieces and renting it to Li farmers for farming was the only favorable farming form at that time.

Li Nong existed as early as the end of Rome and the Republic of China, but at first it meant free tenant farmers, except them.

After paying a certain amount of land rent, he is economically independent and legally a free man. But by 1 century,

Due to the deepening of the slavery crisis, the slave farming system has also developed. In 98 AD, Pliny Jr. presented a gift to Rome.

In the letter of Emperor Trajan, he talked about his Tiferin territory in Ida Larea, with an annual income of 80.

Wansethus, half of which comes from the rent paid by slave owners and the other half comes from the income of slave labor.

Enter. It can be seen that slave owners account for a large proportion in the manor economy of slave owners. At this time,

The composition of slave owners has also undergone major changes. In addition to free tenant farmers, Roman slave owners also put land

Distribute to slaves for farming, and such slaves can get part of the harvest, although they are not legally

He is a farmer, but his economic status is close to that of a farmer. In the border areas of the empire, Roman slave owners leased land to

Barbarian immigrants cultivated, and later, these immigrants gradually became slave owners. There are also a large number of free small farmers because of the war.

Chaos and heavy taxes, no livelihood, forced to seek the "shelter" of the big manor owners, which is also an important reason for the emergence of migrant workers.

Source.

In the 3rd century, there were many hereditary slave owners in Italian provinces, and the number was increasing day by day. but

According to some documents, the relationship between slave owners and landlords in this period still maintained an equal contractual relationship.

Relationship. In 259, when Emperor Valerian and his son Gallienus responded to Ye Frosini's request,

Someone pointed out: "If the land lessor drives you away from the territory, you can sue according to the contract, you can."

Claim compensation. "

Since the 4th century AD, the situation of migrant workers has gone from bad to worse, and the empire deprived them of their rights through a series of decrees.

Freedom. 10,33210.30, Constantine the Great issued an imperial edict: "Anyone should not only put

(1) the ancient Roman silver coins, the imperial period for copper coins.

The second question can be referred to: /viewthread.php? tid= 192 167

The third question is too general. Is it a conflict between politics and religion in the west?

If yes, please review the following information:

The contradiction and conflict between politics and religion ran through the whole Middle Ages in Western Europe and had a far-reaching impact on the historical development of Western Europe. For this sharp, complicated and protracted struggle between church power and kingship, this paper tries to analyze the history of medieval Western Europe in three stages to understand the relationship between them and their influence on the historical development of Western Europe.

Keywords: religious kingship in medieval Western Europe

In the medieval history of western Europe, the contradiction between church and state has always existed, and political power and religious power have been changing and in fierce struggle. At first, popes and clergy were always subordinate to secular monarchs or lords. But by the end of the 11th century, its status had changed greatly. The church used the struggle between secular feudal lords to strengthen its economic and political power and hoped to establish its own rule over the whole of Europe. But secular emperors and monarchs do not want to be pawns of the church. Their support and cooperation with the church is, in the final analysis, nothing more than a kind of use. Therefore, once they feel that the church forces pose a threat to themselves, they should take drastic measures to counter it, so that they will not hesitate to resort to force. In short, in the Middle Ages, the struggle between church power (theocracy) and kingship was sharp, complicated and protracted, and the struggle between them could be divided into three stages: the first stage was the gestation period from the fifth century to the eighth century; The second stage was from the ninth century to the thirteenth century, when religious forces rose and confronted the regime. During this period, religious power reached its peak, and then began to decline from victory. In the third stage, with the formation of the monarchy and the germination of the national consciousness of the people of all countries, the kingship gradually strengthened, the religious forces gradually retreated, and the kingship won the final victory in this struggle.

First, the brewing period

In the early Middle Ages, Christian church and Christian country were only regarded as two basic functional institutions of a unified society. They only have different division of labor, and there is no opposition of different social nature. They didn't expect much conflict between them later. Nevertheless, there are signs of exaggerating theocracy in the ideological theories of some clergy. Gracie (Pope 492-496) was one of the earliest theorists who advocated religious and political dualism. He proposed the so-called "double-edged sword" theory. He said that in Christ, the monarch and the leader were originally one; But knowing human weakness, Christ separated these two functions in the world and gave the monarch and the patriarch two swords to support each other. Galasi said: "There are two systems to govern this world, one is the divine right of priests, and the other is the kingship. In the' final judgment', even the monarch must be responsible to God by the leader. In this respect, among the two powers, the power of the priest is heavier. " He also said: "Jesus Christ distinguished these two rights in an appropriate way and dignity ... that is, in order to make the afterlife eternal, religious emperors should use priests, and priests should apply imperial laws for secular matters." (1) As can be seen from the above, in the early Middle Ages, theocracy began to covet secular power, seeking a theoretical basis for getting its hands on secular power in the future.

In the 6th and 7th centuries, Roman bishops took advantage of the Byzantine emperor's weakening control over Italy to rule Rome first and then occupy a large area of land in central Italy. When Gregor I was the bishop of Rome (590-604), he began to exert a strong influence on the churches in western Europe, and then the bishop of Rome gradually monopolized the name of Pope. In 75 1 year, the Pope allied with King Frank, the new feudal Lord of Western Europe, and supported King Pippin to usurp the throne. When the latter defeated Lombardy in northern Italy in 754, he forced Lombardy to hand over a territory occupied by the Pope in central Italy. Since 756, the Pope has formed a secular state in this territory, commonly known as the "papal state". In this way, besides religious power, the Pope gained considerable secular power, which provided a solid material foundation for the implementation of Gherasi's "double-edged sword theory" and a powerful material force for the struggle between theocracy and kingship in the future.

Second, the confrontation between religious power and kingship.

With the growth of European economy in the 1 1 century, the economic power of the church is getting bigger and bigger, and it gradually wants to get rid of the control of secular regime, which is manifested in the Clooney Movement, a reform movement within the church. Reformers demand strict church management and oppose the manipulation of the church by secular regimes. Clooney movement strengthened the organizational strength of the church, and finally the reformists established contact with the Vatican, breaking the conflict between church and state for centuries, but they lived in peace. 1073, hildebrand, the friar of Clooney Monastery, was elected Pope, namely Pope grigori VII, and thus began to compete with the Holy Roman Emperor. The emperor is the leader of secular feudal lords, and the Pope is the leader of church feudal lords. One side advocates the supremacy of religious power and the other side advocates the supremacy of imperial power, forming a confrontation between the two.

The direct cause of the conflict between the pope and the emperor in the Holy Roman Empire is that the church wants to get rid of the control of secular regime, but we think that what is more important is the "cosmopolitan" tendency in the policies of the emperor and the pope, that is, both sides want to establish rule over the whole Christian world. The Pope believes that he is the spiritual leader of the Christian world and should control and guide secular monarchs. The Pope used expulsion and deprivation of religious rights as a weapon to manipulate secular political power and realize his imperial ambition. The emperor of the Holy Roman Empire also intervened everywhere, pretending to be the leader of the secular world. The focus of the struggle between the two sides is the recall right of the bishop and the control over Italy. These two points are crucial for the Pope and the emperor to carry out their "world empire" policy. First of all, the Pope regards the right to recall bishops as a tool to get rid of secular regime and train the Vatican to tame servants, while the emperor always controls the church by appointing bishops and regards the church he controls as an important pillar of the empire. Secondly, the Pope wants to defend Rome by controlling Italy, while the emperor wants to strengthen himself by controlling Italy.

The struggle between Pope grigori VII and Henry IV (1056-106) for the right of bishop appointment was finally fought by Henry V (1106-125) and Henry IV. According to the agreement, the emperor gave up the right to recall the bishop. The bishop was elected by the priest, but the emperor had the right to participate in the election and make a final decision in case of dispute. The Pope would give the new bishop a title to symbolize the important privileges of territory and administrative power to the emperor. On the surface, the church achieved its goal-abolishing the bishop power of the secular monarch, but in fact the emperor still has great control over the church. The Pope's attempt to control the whole Christian world has not yet come true. Therefore, since the late 12 century, the Pope and the emperor have waged a more intense struggle for the control of Italy. As a result, Emperor Fidler I was defeated by Riano in 1 176, and almost gave up all demands on Italy. Pope authority finally reached its peak in Pope Innocent III (1198-1216). (2) Innocent III established a papal state in central Italy to defend Rome; He appointed the emperor, Britain surrendered to him, and France formed an alliance with him; He suppressed Albee's heresy in South France and advocated the gospel of the new monk group. Moreover, at that time, any thoughts and theories that did not conform to theological orthodoxy were denounced as "heresy" and were banned and persecuted. In short, at that time, "Christianity infected all aspects of feudal society in western Europe with religious colors." (3) After innocence, the religious power changed from prosperity to decline. Later, with the demise of the Hohenstaufen dynasty of the holy Roman Empire, the Pope was under the control of the French king, declaring the disillusionment of the emperor and the Pope's "world empire".

Thirdly, kingship strengthened the decline of religious power.

/kloc-since the 0/2 century, cities in western Europe have developed rapidly and commodity economy has flourished. By the14th century, the initial bud of capitalism appeared in western Europe. With the rapid development of economy, it is urgent to eliminate feudal separatism, and the only way to achieve this goal is to strengthen imperial power and unify the whole country.

In addition, in the process of the emperor's hegemony with the Pope, the Pope intervened in secular affairs, which weakened the spiritual leader position of the Pope in Western Europe and became more and more equal to the secular monarch. In order to meet the needs of intervening in secular affairs, the Vatican was forced to resort to secular methods in church management, especially a set of tax and financial systems. Moreover, because the Vatican has no church tax system, it has to use judicial power as a tax source like secular countries, which will inevitably lead to interference with secular legal rights. The secularization of the Holy See, its control over churches in various countries, its interference in national justice and heavy taxes will inevitably deepen the gap between the Pope and ordinary Christians and cause dissatisfaction with the kingship of western European countries. Therefore, only when Western European countries get rid of the control of the Pope can they get real development. Since 12 century, kings in western Europe have used religious suzerainty as a weapon to strengthen their kingship. Therefore, every step to strengthen the kingship in western Europe is accompanied by a struggle with the Pope.

The monarchy gradually strengthened its religious power and lost it, which can be clearly seen in the history of France. During the period of Louis IX (1226-1230), the king carried out judicial, monetary and military reforms, which promoted economic unity and strengthened the power of the central government. To Philip IV (1285— 13 14), the kingship continued to strengthen. In order to seize the affiliated city of Elander, Philip IV pursued a war policy and often felt financial difficulties. He taxed French priests, so he clashed with the Vatican. Pope Boniface VIII died in the fierce struggle between politics and religion, and the new Pope Clemens V was elected under the direct pressure of the French king. From this time on, the Holy See moved to avignon, France, and lived there for seventy years (1308- 1378), which was called "the prisoner of Avignon" in history. (4) Philip IV continued to fight against the Pope and confiscated the property of the Templars in 1307. 13 12 The Pope officially announced the dissolution of the Knights Templar. Philip IV won a total victory, and the religious right wing suffered heavy losses. The "Prisoner of Avignon" incident fully showed the declining trend of religious power in this period.

The ultimate victory of kingship is attributed to the initial germination of national consciousness in the struggle between kingship and Pope in western European countries. 12 and 13 centuries, the strengthening of kingship and the formation of nations and nation-states in western Europe were basically completed in 15 and 16 centuries. The end of this long process ended the position of the church in the Middle Ages, and the strengthening of kingship and the victory of nation-state inevitably meant the decline of papal power.

In a word, the conflict between religious power and kingship ended in the ultimate victory of kingship. The status of the Pope as the highest loyal object in Western Europe has disappeared, and the kingship of all countries has become the highest loyal object of all subjects. The strengthening of kingship and the germination of national consciousness are the results of economic development in western Europe, which in turn promotes economic development.

Bibliography:

(1) Gu Chunde and Lu, co-editor. History of Western Political and Legal Thoughts, Liaoning People's Publishing House, 1986, p. 133.

(2) Editor-in-chief Gu Chunde and Lu. History of Western Political and Legal Thoughts, Liaoning People's Publishing House, 1986, p. 137.

(3) Yan Cunsheng, editor-in-chief: A New Theory on the History of Western Legal Thought, Shaanxi People's Education Press, 2nd edition, July 1996, p. 58.

(4) William Langer, editor-in-chief: Chronological Handbook of World History, Beijing Sanlian Bookstore, 198 1 Edition, p. 376.