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The feudal system in western Europe is a core content of the medieval history of Europe, and the core content of the feudal system in western Europe is the feudal hierarchy in western Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages, Roman Catholicism occupied one-third of the land in Western Europe at that time economically, contended with secular kingship politically, and formed a monistic monopoly in ideology and culture, which can be said to be in a position of returning to primitive religion. Cities are an important symbol of the formation of civilization. There are obvious differences between western civilization and eastern civilization in many aspects, many of which are caused by cities. Byzantine Empire is a glorious ancient civilization, and its historical destiny has great typical significance and enlightenment value in how to face new environmental challenges. -Molding features

The feudal system in western Europe is a core content of the medieval history of Europe, and the core content of the feudal system in western Europe is the feudal hierarchy in western Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages, Roman Catholicism occupied one-third of the land in Western Europe at that time economically, contended with secular kingship politically, and formed a monistic monopoly in ideology and culture, which can be said to be in a position of returning to primitive religion. Cities are an important symbol of the formation of civilization. There are obvious differences between western civilization and eastern civilization in many aspects, many of which are caused by cities. Byzantine Empire is a glorious ancient civilization, and its historical destiny has great typical significance and enlightenment value in how to face new environmental challenges.

The first chapter is the formation of feudal society in western Europe.

In 476 AD, the demise of the Western Roman Empire was an important transition from slavery to feudalism in Western Europe.

Mark, to 1 1 century, the feudal process in western Europe was basically completed. For a century.

In this process, on the one hand, the disintegration of Germanic rural communes and the formation of dependent farmers; On the other hand, it is a seal.

The gradual establishment of relations of production. These are two aspects of one thing in the process of feudalism in western Europe.

It became the main clue to the establishment of early feudal society in western Europe. Compared with some civilized countries in the East, Western Europe is closed.

It was quite backward in the early days of the establishment of the society, because Christianity and some rags were left over from ancient times.

This city. The serf manor with underdeveloped production, weak commodity circulation and occlusion was the main economic fine at that time.

Cells and grass-roots political organizations. Feudal separatism, the decline of kingship, the whole spiritual and cultural field are monks.

Monopoly and the continuous struggle of working people against serfdom were both feudal societies in early Western Europe.

The main features of the meeting.

The Decline of Western Roman Empire and the Establishment of Germanic Kingdom

The crisis of slavery in the Western Roman Empire and the germination of feudal relations from the 3rd century to the 5th century were all western.

The crisis of slavery in the Roman Empire was always exposed, and feudal factors were bred in the matrix of the empire.

For a long time. The pagoda movement that swept Gaul and Spain shocked the Agonistes Slave Congress in North Africa.

The uprising took place in this period. These uprisings dealt a heavy blow to the reactionary rule of the slave-owning class.

The countryside was barren, the cities withered, and the large-scale slave plunder war was forced to stop. The source of slaves has dried up, and the price

In the 3rd century A.D., a robust slave sold 300 to 500 silver coins. large-scale

Using slave labor is not only unprofitable, but also extremely dangerous. In this case, the manor land was divided.

Cutting it into small pieces and renting it to Li farmers for farming was the only favorable farming form at that time.

Li Nong existed as early as the end of Rome and the Republic of China, but at first it meant free tenant farmers, except them.

After paying a certain amount of land rent, he is economically independent and legally a free man. But by 1 century,

Due to the deepening of the slavery crisis, the slave farming system has also developed. In 98 AD, Pliny Jr. presented a gift to Rome.

In the letter of Emperor Trajan, he talked about his Tiferin territory in Ida Larea, with an annual income of 80.

Wansethus, half of which comes from the rent paid by slave owners and the other half comes from the income of slave labor.

Enter. It can be seen that slave owners account for a large proportion in the manor economy of slave owners. At this time,

The composition of slave owners has also undergone major changes. In addition to free tenant farmers, Roman slave owners also put land

Distribute to slaves for farming, and such slaves can get part of the harvest, although they are not legally

He is a farmer, but his economic status is close to that of a farmer. In the border areas of the empire, Roman slave owners leased land to

Barbarian immigrants cultivated, and later, these immigrants gradually became slave owners. There are also a large number of free small farmers because of the war.

Chaos and heavy taxes, no livelihood, forced to seek the "shelter" of the big manor owners, which is also an important reason for the emergence of migrant workers.

Source.

In the 3rd century, there were many hereditary slave owners in Italian provinces, and the number was increasing day by day. but

According to some documents, the relationship between slave owners and landlords in this period still maintained an equal contractual relationship.

Relationship. In 259, when Emperor Valerian and his son Gallienus responded to Ye Frosini's request,

Someone pointed out: "If the land lessor drives you away from the territory, you can sue according to the contract, you can."

Want to claim? "。

Since the 4th century AD, the situation of migrant workers has gone from bad to worse, and the empire deprived them of their rights through a series of decrees.

Freedom. 10,33210.30, Constantine the Great issued an imperial edict: "Anyone should not only put

(1) the ancient Roman silver coins, the imperial period for copper coins. -Political characteristics

Author:

Emerson (Ralph Waldo Emerson 1803- 1882)

Thinker, essayist, poet. 1803 was born in a pastor's family in Boston on May 25th. 1882 died in Concord, Massachusetts on April 27th. /kloc-graduated from Harvard College at the age of 0/7. /kloc-entered Harvard theological seminary in 0/826 and was allowed to preach the following year. 1828 became the pastor of the second church in Boston, belonging to the only dominant monotheistic Sect in New England at that time. Later, because he disapproved of some teachings of this sect, he gave up his priesthood and traveled to Europe in 1833. He visited Landauer, Coleridge and Wordsworth, pioneers of the romantic movement, and became intimate friends with Carlisle, deeply influenced by Kant's transcendental philosophy. After returning to China, he published the book Nature on 1836, which contains almost all the seeds of his important thoughts. 1837 On August 30th, Emerson delivered a speech entitled "On American Scholars" in the American Students' Union, attacking the phenomenon that money worship and capitalist division of labor alienated people into things in American society and emphasizing the value of people. It is pointed out that the task of scholars is to reveal the truth freely and bravely from the skin, so as to inspire, improve and guide people; He called for national pride and opposed blindly following foreign theories. This speech was a sensation and had a great influence on the rise of American national culture. It was praised by Holmes as "our declaration of independence in thought".

1On July 5th, 838, Emerson delivered a famous speech entitled "Speech at the Theological Seminary" at Cambridge Theological Seminary, which was protested and attacked by Calvinists and the only sect in New England. Emerson's philosophical thought maintains the positive elements of the monotheistic school's emphasis on human value, and at the same time absorbs European idealism transcendentalism and develops into a transcendentalist view. Its basic starting point is to oppose authority and cherish intuition; Its core is to advocate that people can transcend feeling and reason and directly know the truth. This view is helpful to break the shackles of theology and foreign dogma at that time, establish national culture, embody the spirit of the times, and provide theoretical basis for the development of American political democracy and economic capitalism.

From 1836, Emerson, alcott, ripley and others met irregularly in Concord to discuss "the bad situation of theology and philosophy", which can be said to be the starting point of the Transcendentalism movement. They founded the quarterly Japanese Regulations (1840- 1844), published literary works and advocated educational, ethical and political reforms. Emerson was the chief editor and the main representative of transcendentalism.

Emerson's works are mostly prose, and his important works are On Self-help and On Oversoul, which are included in Essays (184 1) and Essays: The Second Series (1844) respectively. Two volumes of poetry were published in 1847 and 1867 respectively. There are also representative figures (1850) and English figures (1856).

Hawthorne, NY (nathaniel hawthorne 1804- 1864)

Novelist 1804 was born in a declining family in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4th. Some of his ancestors had participated in inviting Christians to persecute heresy, and he was one of the three judges in the famous "Salem exorcism case" of 1692. This period of history had a profound influence on Hawthorne's thought. Hawthorne's father was a captain and died when he was 4 years old. 182 1 year, Hawthorne entered Bodoin College with the support of relatives. Among his classmates were the poet Longfellow and Pierce, who was later elected president. 1825 graduated from university and returned to Salem town to write. He has published the novel Fan Xiao (1828) and dozens of short stories anonymously, and successively published short story collections Moss in the Old House (1843) and Snow Shadow (185 1), which gradually gained attention and praise. Most of Hawthorne's short stories are based on the history or real life of New England, paying attention to human nature and human destiny.

Hawthorne worked in the Customs twice in 1836 and 1846, and participated in the Brooke Farm founded by the Transcendentalists in 184 1. 1842 married and lived in xiehe village. 1848 lost his position as a customs officer because of his different political views from the authorities, so he devoted himself to creative activities and wrote his most important novel The Scarlet Letter (1850). Based on the life in colonial New England, this work describes a young woman who was bound by an unreasonable marriage and committed adultery prohibited by Calvinism, and it was made public, exposing some darkness of colonial society under the rule of theocracy system at that time. After the publication of The Scarlet Letter, it was a great success, and Hawthorne went on to create many works. The Seven Corners House (185 1) reflects the bloody plunder in the early stage of capitalist development. Another novel, The Legend of Fugu (1852), takes Brooke's farm life as the theme, expressing the author's disappointment with this attempt at social improvement and his disgust with fanatical reformers. After Pierce was elected President of the United States, Hawthorne was appointed Consul in Liverpool, England 1853. After 1857, he lived in Italy and wrote another novel, Jade Statue (1860), which discussed the issue of good and evil. 1860 returned to the United States, settled in Concord, and continued to write. 1864 died in may of 19, leaving four unfinished novels.

Mark Twain (Mark Twain l835- 19 10)

Writer. The pseudonym of Samuel Langhesh Clemens. 1835165438+1October 3 1 Hannibal was born in Florida, Missouri, and grew up on the Mississippi River. Father, a disgruntled village lawyer and shopkeeper, died at the age of 12. He once studied typesetting. 185 1 year, he worked as a compositor in a newspaper run by his brother Olers and began to learn to write humorous sketches. After 1853, I worked as a compositor in the midwest and east. 1856, went to New Orleans and wanted to go to Brazil. When I was sailing south along the Mississippi River, I met the old helmsman Horace bixby and worshipped him as my teacher. /kloc-after school started in October and August, I worked as a helmsman on the Mississippi River until the civil war broke out and the waterway traffic was cut off. He once joined the Confederate army in the war. 186 1 year, Olers was sent by President Lincoln as a secretary to the regional government of West Nevada. He followed, trying to get rich in the timber industry and mining industry, but failed, so he turned to writing articles for a living. 1862 works in a newspaper in Virginia, Nevada. 1863 began to use the pseudonym "Mark Twain". 1864 I met humorist A Ward and novelist B Hart in San Francisco, and got their encouragement and help, which improved my writing level. 1865, he published a humorous story "The Famous Jumping Frog in Kara Velas County" in a magazine in new york, which made him famous all over the country. Since then, I have often written humorous articles for newspapers and periodicals. 1866 went to Hawaii for an interview, 1867 traveled to Europe and Palestine with a group of tourists and worked as a reporter in Quaker City. The report he wrote was later compiled into A Fool's Travel Abroad (1869).

1870 Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon, the daughter of a capitalist in New York State. After marriage, I lived in Buffalo, edited and published Express Yourself, and sold it one year later because of too much loss. The book Hard Times, published by 1872, reflects his life experience in the newly developed western region, which records some anecdotes, especially humorous stories with American western characteristics. 1873 co-authored The Gilded Age with Richard Werner, which was his first novel.

187 1 year, Mark Twain moved to Hartford, Connecticut. He became a famous writer and humorous speaker. Later childhood was the harvest period of his creation. 1875 Mark Twain wrote an article for Atlantic Monthly at the invitation of howells. He wrote seven articles about his early life as a helmsman on the Mississippi River, and then compiled them into a book called The Past of the Mississippi River. Eight years later, he returned to his hometown and expanded the book into On the Mississippi River (1883).

1876, the novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer was published. Although this book is set in a small town on the Mississippi River, it is loved by readers of all ages. There are many stories about naughty Tom, his partner Huckleberry Finn and Tom's girlfriend Becky Thatcher, many of which are the author's personal experiences and have many interesting plots that are in line with children's psychology.

Another important novel of Mark Twain, The Adventures of Harburg Finn, was written in 1876 and published in 1884. This novel has been highly praised by critics, welcomed by readers at home and abroad, and constantly banned.

Mark Twain published "Americans in King Arthur's Court" on 1889. It and The Prince and the Poor Child (188 1) are both novels that satirize the feudal system and religion in the background of Britain. From 65438 to 0894, Mark Twain wrote "Fool Wilson", which portrayed Roxey as an aggressive slave girl. Before and after this, his family suffered misfortune: two daughters died of illness and his wife's health deteriorated; He failed to invest in automatic typesetting machine and went bankrupt. In order to pay off his debts, he traveled around to give speeches and visited Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, India and South America. 1897 wrote A Journey to the Equator, in which he satirized and condemned the oppression of the colonial people by imperialism, and opposing imperialism became the central idea of his later creation. The Biography of Joan of Arc was published in 1896, describing the life of Joan of Arc, a French national heroine in15th century. Mark Twain paid off all his debts. 1900 10 After leaving the United States to live in Europe for nearly ten years, he and his family returned to the United States and were warmly welcomed and became leaders in the literary and art circles. Many works of Punctuality published after 1900 have not lost their edge.

1904, his wife died in Italy. Mark. Twain entered the final stage of his career. In his early works, such as The Adventures of Harburg Finn, his pessimism about "human beings" (actually the bourgeoisie) became the main theme of some of his works. The novella The Man Who Corrupted Hadleyburg (1900) and the essay What's wrong with people? "(1906), the story" The Mysterious Visitor "(19 16) are all reflected. The most important work in his later years is an autobiography dictated by him and recorded by his secretary. April 2 19 10 died.