Kant’s Four Paradoxes

Immanuel Kant (April 22, 1724 - February 12, 1804) was a German philosopher and the founder of German classical philosophy. He is considered one of the most influential thinkers on modern Europe and the last major philosopher of the Enlightenment.

A basic starting point of Kant’s philosophical theory is that the rationality (i.e., “categories”) that transforms experience into knowledge is innate to humans. Without innate categories, we cannot understand the world. His theory combined British empiricism and European rationalism, and had a profound influence on German idealism and romanticism. Kant's ethical theory is also very famous. In addition, he also proposed the first modern theoretical explanation for the formation of the solar system, the Kant-Laplace hypothesis.

Life

On April 22, 1724, Kant was born in K?nigsberg, the capital of East Prussia (today's Kaliningrad, Russia), into a family of saddlemakers. Both were devout Protestants; he entered the University of K?nigsberg to study philosophy in 1740 and graduated in 1745; from 1746, Kant went to work as a tutor in a rural aristocratic family for nine years; in 1755, Kant returned to the University of K?nigsberg to complete his university studies. , obtained the qualification of non-staff lecturer and served as a lecturer for 15 years. He taught physical geography, mathematics, mechanics, engineering, mechanics, ethics, natural science, physics, oratory and other subjects. Based on many foreign biographies of Kant, he made a list The schedule of the busiest day: 8-9 pm logic, 9-10 pm mechanics, 10-11 pm theoretical physics; 2-3 pm physical geography, 3-4 pm mathematics [1]; in 1770 Kant was Appointed professor of logic and metaphysics; promoted to president of the University of K?nigsberg in 1786; resigned from the university faculty in 1797; died of illness on February 12, 1804.

While teaching at the University of K?nigsberg, Kant was successively elected as an academician of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, the Petersburg Academy of Sciences, the Cohen Academy of Sciences and the Italian Academy of Tuscany. Kant never left K?nigsberg throughout his life.

Kant's life was so regular that local residents came to check their watches when he walked past him at 3:30 every afternoon. The only exception was that he missed it because he was fascinated by Rousseau's "Emile". Time for a walk. Perhaps it is because of this regular lifestyle that Kant rarely suffered from illness. However, Kant was a very sociable person, very talkative, and often invited guests to have dinner with him. He pays attention to eating and drinking and has a special preference for delicious food.

Kant's life can be divided into two stages with 1770 as the mark, the early stage and the later stage. The early stage mainly studied natural science, and the later stage mainly studied philosophy. The main early achievements include the "General History of Nature and Celestialism" published in 1755, which proposed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system. In the next nine years starting from 1781, Kant published a series of great and original works covering a wide range of fields, which brought a revolution to the philosophical thought of the time, including "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781). , "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788) and "Critique of Judgment" (1790). The publication of the "Three Critiques" marked the completion of Kant's philosophical system. The three major criticisms explore epistemology, ethics and aesthetics respectively. Although the chronological order should be "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781), "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788) and "Critique of Judgment" (1790), in terms of its theoretical system, it should be named "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781), Critique of Judgment (1790), and Critique of Practical Reason (1788).

Politically, Kant was a liberal. He supported the French Revolution and the French Revolution. In 1795, he also published the book "On Perpetual Peace", proposing the relationship between democratic government and the world. The Conception of the Federation. The last representative work he wrote during his lifetime was "Anthropology" (1798), which is generally considered to be a summary and summary of his entire theory. Kant was already well-known as an outstanding philosopher in his later years. After his death, people held a grand funeral for him.

Kant never married.

[Edit] Overview of Philosophical Thoughts

[Edit] Philosophical Essentials of "The Critique of Pure Reason"

First of all, Kant's first chapter of "The Critique of Pure Reason" In the preface to the edition, it is clarified that the necessity of criticizing reason lies first in determining whether general metaphysics is possible or impossible, and in defining its origin, scope and limits. However, in the preface to the second edition, Kant did not focus on the conditions for rational criticism, but changed the relationship between knowledge and objects: knowledge is not based on objects, but objects are based on knowledge. This new concept led Kant to launch The "Copernican revolution" in philosophy.

In the introduction, Kant put forward the general theme of the book: the general task of pure reason is to solve the "a priori comprehensive judgment", that is, the science of justice that is universal and inevitable and expands the content of knowledge. Knowledge is a question of "how is it possible", and this general question is subdivided into the following four questions: 1. How is mathematics possible? 2. How is natural science possible? 3. How is metaphysics possible as a natural tendency? How is metaphysics possible as a science?

Kant roughly divided the book into five parts: 1. Transcendental Perceptualism 2. Transcendental Logic 3. Transcendental Analysis 4. Transcendental Dialectic 5. Transcendental Methodology

[edit] Transcendental Perceptual Theory

Transcendental Perceptual Theory mainly clarifies that only through the two major elements of space and time are the innate intuitive forms of human perceptual knowledge (receptive ability). Only by sorting out the sensory data of things in themselves that stimulate the senses can we obtain certain perceptual knowledge. At the same time, space and time are also innate intuitive forms of the basis and conditions for the commonality and inevitability of mathematical knowledge.

[edit] Transcendental Logic Theory

Explanation of Transcendental Logic Theory Perception must be combined with understanding, intuition must be combined with thinking, in order to produce knowledge of natural science, so there must be a Transcendental logic, which is different from formal logic, explores the structure of understanding and its various principles when applied to objects of experience. Transcendental logic is based on the relationship between knowledge and objects, that is, the content of knowledge, rather than a simple form of thinking. This marks the germination of dialectical logic in modern times.

[edit] Transcendental Analysis Theory

Transcendental Analysis Theory (logic of truth) clarifies that innate concepts and innate principles of intelligence are the basis and conditions for the possibility of natural science. In conceptual analysis, through the analysis of the logical function in intellectual judgment. The theory of principle analysis in the transcendental analysis mainly clarifies the rules for the application of categories to phenomena by the understanding and guidance of judgment.

[edit] Transcendental Dialectics

Transcendental Dialectics (the logic of illusion) mainly clarifies the ontology that reason inevitably transcends phenomena to understand, and the resulting Metaphysics as a natural tendency is nothing but a priori illusion and cannot be a true science. Kant pointed out in the introduction to Transcendental Dialectics that the generalization ability of reason requires starting from the conditioned to understand the unconditional through inference.

[edit] Transcendental Methodology

Transcendental Methodology first clarifies that although the empirical use of pure reason has correct usage regulations (the principle of intellectual prioritization), its theoretical ( Speculative, transcendental) use but no regulations, so it must be used transcendentally (dogmatism starting from definitions, skeptical methods of arguing from pros and cons and falsifying each other, as well as assumptions and proofs) Methods and other four aspects) should be trained, and some "negative" rules should be established to limit the tendency of pure reason to expand beyond possible experience, thus preparing methodological principles for establishing a metaphysics about experience.

[Editor] Essentials of the Theory of Knowledge and Others

Although Kant used critical philosophy, he himself established a complete philosophical theory. He himself claimed to have launched a Copernican revolution in philosophy. In the era of Kant, there were two main important theories in European philosophical thought: empiricism developed by Locke, Hume and others, and rationalism by Descartes and others. Empiricists believe that human understanding and knowledge of the world come from human experience, while rationalists believe that human knowledge comes from human reason.

Kant combined the two views to a certain extent. Kant believed that knowledge is obtained by human beings through both senses and reason. Experience is necessary for the generation of knowledge, but it is not the only element. Converting experience into knowledge requires rationality (Kant, like Aristotle, calls this rationality "categories"), and rationality is innate.

Human beings obtain external experience through the framework of categories. Without categories, it is impossible to perceive the world. Categories, like experience, are therefore necessary for the acquisition of knowledge. But there are also some factors in the human category that can change human beings' concepts of the world. He realized that things themselves are different from what people see, and people can never know for sure the true appearance of things.

Kant’s tombstone in what is now Kaliningrad, Russia. In Kant’s view, time and space are two innate and special concepts. In "Critique of Pure Reason", Kant pointed out that no one can imagine an object existing in a world without time and space. Therefore, he emphasized that without time and space, experience is impossible, and these two precede all experience. .

In addition, Kant also believed that experience must come from outside the mind. In other words, a person can perceive and understand the world around him, but he can never perceive and understand himself, because the generation of knowledge requires three elements: time, space and category.

In terms of the law of cause and effect, Kant also overturned Hume's view. Hume believed that the law of causality does not exist, and that humans only believe that there is a connection between two phenomena due to habit. In other words, we can only perceive the movement of the white ball and the black ball, but we cannot perceive the cause of the white ball causing the black ball to move. It is precisely because we cannot perceive the law of causation itself that Hume believes that we cannot prove the existence of the law of causation. However, Kant believed that the law of causality is the result of human reason. Kant agreed with Hume that the law of causality does not come from experience, but he believed that the laws of nature could be proved, because the laws of nature are the laws of human cognition. The law of cause and effect is actually a manifestation of human rationality.

On religious issues, Kant admitted that neither experience nor reason could prove the existence of God. But he believed that for the sake of morality we must assume the existence of God and the soul. He called these beliefs a "practical hypothesis," an assumption that cannot be proven but that must be true for the sake of practice.

[Editor] Philosophical Essentials of "Critique of Practical Reason"

In terms of ethics, Kant denies that the will is controlled by external factors, but believes that the will legislates for itself and that humans can distinguish right from wrong. Abilities are innate, not acquired. This set of natural laws is a supreme command that applies to all situations and is a universal moral principle. Kant believes that true moral behavior is behavior based purely on obligation, and doing things to achieve a certain personal utilitarian purpose cannot be considered a moral behavior. Therefore, Kant believed that whether an action is moral or not depends not on the consequences of the action, but on the motivation for taking the action. Kant also believes that we are free only when we abide by moral laws, because we abide by the moral principles we have formulated ourselves, and if we do it just because we want to do it, there is no freedom at all, because you become A slave to all things.

[edit] The doctrinal conclusion of Kant's philosophy

His doctrine uses its own statement to mainly answer four questions: 1. What can I know? 2. What should I think about? 3. What do I hope for? 4. What is a person?

[edit] Quotes

Freedom means self-discipline.

The purpose of education is to make people become human beings.

There are two things that become more and more miraculous the more I think about them, and my heart is full of awe. They are the starry sky above my head and the moral principles in my heart. They confirm to me: God is above me and also in my heart. In my heart.

Antinomy is Kant’s philosophical concept. It refers to the phenomenon that two theories or doctrines formed on the same object or problem are contradictory although they are independently established. It is also translated as antinomy, conflict or self-contradiction.

Antinomy was proposed by Kant in his representative work "The Critique of Pure Reason". In the book, Kant listed four antinomies, all consisting of thesis and antithesis.

In the first type of antinomy, the thesis is: "The world has a starting point in time, and it is also limited in terms of space."

The antithesis is: "The world has a starting point in time." It has no beginning in time and no limit in space; it is infinite in both time and space.”

The second antinomy proves that every composite entity is composed of simple parts. It is not composed of simple parts.

The thesis of the third type of antinomy claims that there are two types of causation, one is causation in accordance with the laws of nature, and the other is causation in accordance with the law of freedom; the antithesis claims that there is only causation in accordance with the laws of nature. relation.

The fourth antinomy proves that there is and is not an absolutely necessary being.

The discovery of the antinomies of pure reason was of great significance in the formation of Kant's philosophy. It enabled Kant to go deep into the criticism of reason, not only discovering the source of previous metaphysical difficulties, but also finding a way to solve the problem. . Kant regarded antinomies as inevitable due to the natural tendency of human reason to pursue the unconditional. His solution was to regard the unconditional not as an object of cognition but as the goal of moral belief. Although his understanding of antinomies was mainly negative, he also revealed the inevitability of the internal contradictions of reason, thus exerting a profound influence on Hegel's dialectics.