Water conditions for Qingdao port to become a famous port

Navigation conditions, berthing conditions, port construction conditions and hinterland conditions. Among them, the hinterland is the most important, which is the basis of the rise and fall of the port.

1. Navigation conditions mean that ships with certain specifications can safely and quickly enter and leave the port regardless of season and day and night. Specifically, it includes several aspects: (1) The entrance of waterway should have obvious position and suitable direction. According to the use experience of the seaport, the angle between the entrance axis and the direction of strong wind and waves should be 45 ~ 60. The angle between the entrance direction and the coastline should not be less than 45, so as to avoid pushing the ship to the beach when the side of the ship is windy. China's coastline is located on the southeast edge of the mainland, and the monsoon climate is characterized by strong wind in winter, the wind direction is northwest or north, and some areas are northeast, so it is easier to deal with the direction of the inbound channel. Generally, it enters the entrance from the east or southeast. (2) The most important channel condition for channel scale is the scale of inbound channels. The approach channel should be short, straight, wide and deep with little siltation, which is particularly important for the seaport. The entrance of the seaport should ensure that ships can enter, and the width should not be less than the length of the largest ship entering the harbor, generally not less than130 ~150m. The passage of large ships should be more than 200m, but not more than 300 ~ 400m, so as not to affect the calm of the water surface in the harbor. The mouth width of some seaports in China, coastal ports: Dalian Dagang (east-west area) 360m, Qingdao Port 260m, Xiamen Port 720m, estuary ports: Tianjin Xingang 1300m, Shanghai Changjiang Nanhang Road 500m, Huangpu River Channel 50m, Fuzhou Minjiang River Channel 120m. The width of one-way channel in inland ports should not be less than 65438+ 0.5 times of the maximum ship width, and the width of two-way channel should not be less than 2.6 times. The waterway in the harbor should have sufficient radius of curvature to facilitate operation. The turning water area shall extend outward at an angle of 30 ~ 40 between the ship position and the dock line, with a length of not less than 2.5 ~ 4 times that of the captain and a width of not less than 1.5 times. In addition, the layout of quays or barges along the river cannot affect the width of the main channel. In order to ensure the navigation of rivers, there is a regulation of "the finish line of jetty wharf" abroad. The depth of the waterway is determined according to the maximum ship's draft, navigation richness and technical richness. H=T+hH+hT, where the minimum water depth of the H- channel T- the maximum draft depth of the ship hH- the navigable surplus water depth hH=h 1+h2+h3, where the surplus water depth under the keel of the ship H 1- is determined by the underwater sediment, generally 0. 1 ~ 0.6m H2- surplus. The general speed H3 is 0.033- the wave affects the flood depth, which is related to the wave height h3=h wave height -h 1ht- the technical flood depth is related to channel siltation, and the general draft of a ship is 0.6 ~ 1.0m, which is directly proportional to the tonnage of the ship. The bigger the ship, the deeper the draft.

In recent years, due to the improvement of hull structure and the application of new technology, the draft of ships with the same tonnage tends to decrease. The self-weight of a ship is generally expressed in gross tonnage, and the full load is expressed in drainage tonnage. The ratio of the two is about 1: 1.5 ~ 2 on passenger and cargo ships and about 1: 2 ~ 3 on cargo ships. In ancient times, wooden sailboats were small in load, short in size and shallow in draft, and could almost be moored in natural harbors. China's so-called ports, Pudong, bays and Macao all refer to natural places where ships enter and leave. At present, ships with a tonnage of more than 10,000 tons are common in the world, and the water depth of the harbor channel and waters is required to be more than 9 meters. In recent years, the water depth of newly-built bulk cargo terminals in large foreign ports is generally 12 ~ 15 meters, while the water depth of oil terminals is 20 ~ 35 meters. China's coastal ships are generally 3000 ~ 1 000 tons, and ocean-going ships are 1 ~ 25000 tons. Therefore, the draft of major seaports in China should be above 9 meters, and that of medium-sized seaports should be around 7 meters. Among them, Dalian Port and Qingdao Port have a draft of12m, and 50,000-ton seagoing vessels can enter and leave by tide. Qinhuangdao Port, Tianjin Xingang Port and Zhanjiang Port, 20,000-ton seagoing vessels with draft of 10 meter can enter and exit by tide; Shanghai Yangtze River Waterway, Huangpu Port and Basuo Port, with a draught of 9 meters, 10,000-ton ships can enter and leave by tide. China newly built Dalian New Oil Port, Table 7 1 Relationship between tonnage and draft (tonnage) Average draft (m) Ordinary seagoing ships 500 3.5 1, 000 4.8 3,300 6.95,000 7.7 8,000 8.510,000 9.0 60. 000952001003000102500108000 1.2 50000 ~ 65448 large oil tankers. 000 ~ 1 00,00014.0100,000 ~150,00015.7150,000 ~ 200,000. (3) The action of wind, ocean current and waves, which are some important factors that affect the entry and exit of ships. The wind has a certain influence on the ship's access to the channel, and it is also unfavorable when docking at the dock. Wind forces acting on seagoing ships can be estimated by referring to the following formulas: r, p, c, v, a, a, a, ra =+ 1.2222 (Cossin), where: ra- wind pressure (kg); Pa-air density 0.125 (kg S2/m 4); Cra-wind pressure coefficient; Va—— relative wind speed (m/s), corresponding to the longitudinal axis of the ship; θ-relative wind direction (degree), corresponding to the longitudinal axis of the ship; Orthographic projection area of the front of the hull on the water surface (m2); Side A —— Projected area of hull side on water (m2). Ocean current is the flow of seawater.

Ocean currents faced by ports are often caused by comprehensive reasons, including regular ocean currents ν 1 caused by temperature or salt imbalance, periodic ocean currents ν2 caused by seasonal changes of tides and winds, and temporary ocean currents ν3 caused by short-term changes of winds or other accidental factors. Therefore, the regional current ν is the vector sum of the above three currents, that is, ν ν ν ν. =++1.23 Under the action of wind speed, the water flow obviously decays to a certain depth, which is the friction depth. If the depth h of the sea is less than the friction depth f, it is called shallow sea, otherwise it is deep sea. The friction depth is determined by the following empirical formula: F w F = = 7 6 600 3. Sinj or ν where w- wind speed (m/s)j- local latitude ν3- wind speed in shallow water (m/s), and the deviation angle between the direction of surface current and the direction causing the current wind (right in the northern hemisphere, opposite in the southern hemisphere). That is, H/F 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 declination angle A 2 1.545 45.545 The flow pressure of ocean current acting on the ship can be estimated with reference to the following formula: R P C V LT W W W W W W W W W =122 where Rw—— is the flow pressure (kg)； Pw—— seawater density is104.5 (kg/m2/m2); Vw-relative speed (m/s); L-captain (m); T—— average draft water pressure coefficient. According to experiments and calculations, when the ship is empty (ballast), the influence of wind power exceeds that of flowing pressure, while when the ship is full, the influence of flowing pressure exceeds that of wind power. Therefore, both must be considered at the same time. Waves are caused by wind, earthquake or ship movement in the ocean, and wind is dominant. In the deep sea and ocean, that is, when the water depth is more than half of the wavelength, the trajectory of the water quality point is circular and makes a circular motion. However, after the waves reach the coastal area of shallow sea, due to the friction between the waves and the seabed, the water quality points move into oblate circles and even swing back and forth parallel to the seabed. At this time, breaking waves are formed. The propagation speed of shallow water wave has nothing to do with wavelength, but depends on water depth (that is, C = gH C is the wave speed and h is the water depth). The waves have great destructive power. Its impact force is 4 tons per square meter and its pressure is 30 tons per square meter. Therefore, hydraulic structures, such as breakwater and wharf revetment, built to ensure the navigation and anchoring of ships in the port area must have corresponding structural stability. This is also the fundamental reason why it is more economical and reasonable to build a port in a closed bay than in an open coast. (4) Tide change Tide is a phenomenon that the water surface of the earth fluctuates periodically under the joint action of the gravity of the sun and the moon on the earth.

A lunar day has two high tides and two low tides, which is called semidiurnal tide type, and there are regular (weekly) and irregular points; A lunar day has only one high tide and one low tide, which is called diurnal tide type, which is rare in China. Spring tides appear in the new moon and moon (tide) of the lunar calendar, and small tides appear in the upper and lower chords (sunseeker). Tidal fluctuation forms tidal range, which has certain influence on the construction of dock basin and the use of loading and unloading equipment, but it is extremely beneficial to the entry and exit of ships. Many ports, such as Shanghai, Tianjin Xingang, Huangpu, etc., have insufficient water depth, so they all need to rely on the high tide to let large ships enter the port. Tidal range has a great relationship with the port's land and sea position and coastal landform. Narrow and deep bays and trumpet-shaped estuaries are easy to increase tide. On the other hand, the tidal range between the coast and the vast ocean surface is very obvious. 72 Tidal range of some ports and harbors in China (meter) Small tidal range (meter) Xiamen semidiurnal tide 6.2 5.2 Fuzhou semidiurnal tide 5.5 4.0 Lianyungang semidiurnal tide 5.2 4.3 Haiyan (Qiantang estuary) semidiurnal tide 5.2 3.0 Qingdao semidiurnal tide 4.2 3.3 Shanghai Wusongkou semidiurnal tide 4.0 2. .6 Zhanjiang Irregular Diurnal Tide 3.7 2.9 Tianjin Xingang Irregular Diurnal Tide 3.2 2.6 Dalian Diurnal Tide 2.8 2.3 Huangpu Irregular Diurnal Tide 2.7 2.9 Yantai Diurnal Tide 2.6 2. 1 Qinhuangdao Diurnal Tide1~1.50 Kloc-0/ Kaohsiung irregular diurnal tide 0.4 0 can be used to build sluice gates in estuaries or bays to form a closed harbor basin, which can not only berth large ships, but also use seawater to generate electricity.

Other natural factors of port navigation conditions include freezing, foggy days and visibility, sediment deposition, etc. Among them, high latitude ports are most affected by freezing conditions. Some ports use icebreakers to maintain navigation in winter, such as Tianjin Port; Some ports are forced to close in winter, such as Yingkou Port. Natural conditions have less restrictions on the navigation of ships in inland ports than in seaports. However, the layout of docks or barges along the river has a great relationship with the width of the waterway. 2. Berthing conditions The so-called berthing conditions refer to whether there is enough hidden water surface for ships to anchor, moor, load and unload and transit safely. In this regard, the first thing is that the water area can be covered, so that ships can anchor and load and unload without being affected by wind, waves and currents. Therefore, there are islands and rocky sandbars in the harbor, and the small and narrow entrance is the most suitable, and the straight shore condition is the worst. Qingdao Port is a typical example of good water surface concealment. Jiaozhou Bay faces the sea, with natural situation, vast waters and smooth navigation channels. Dagang, the main port area, is artificially connected into a semi-circular jetty by several rocks in the bay. The harbor basin is calm, and the water depth at the wharf front is 5-9 meters, which can dock 8 10,000-ton seagoing ships at the same time (Figure 76). In order to ensure the anchorage safety of ships, it is necessary to make a concrete analysis of coastal landforms and their protection against wind, waves and currents when choosing port locations. For example, Dalian has a harbor in its heart (Figure 77), where the north wind prevails in winter and the south wind or southeast wind prevails in summer. Yu Nian Bay only opens to the sea in the southeast, with shallow water in the north and a headland in the south. Rock reefs are exposed to the water, just like natural outer dikes, which play a role in blocking and dissipating waves in the south and southwest. The wharf is located in the deep water area with the water depth of 15m on the west side of the bay, which is 700 ~ 1 000 meters away from the shore. However, the maximum ocean current direction (between N 150 ~ N 180) should be considered, so that the front end of the wharf is SSE-oriented, and it is downwind, downstream and downstream as far as possible to reduce the ship load. G in the figure shows the berthing area of the construction fleet and the location of the construction wharf. In order to ensure that a large number of ships break down and work on water. There must be vast waters and deep-water coastline. The water surface of the harbor is natural or made of artificial protective materials. More natural rivers are used in river port berthing areas. The water area of large ports is generally more than several million square meters.

The sediment in the harbor is related to the anchorage. Mud bottom is the most favorable for anchoring, followed by sand bottom, and pebble or rock bottom is difficult to be "caught" by ship anchor, which makes anchoring difficult. The water depth is too deep, such as more than tens of meters, the anchor chain is often less than. The above is only for anchoring. For tanker mooring, the requirements for bottom materials are not so strict. Local waves and tidal currents also affect port berthing. For example, Keelung Port is surrounded by mountains in the west, south and east, but the strong northeast wind is opposite in winter, which is very stormy and has a strong current impact, so it is not suitable for berthing outside the port. 3. Port construction conditions The narrow sense of port construction conditions refers to the possibility of reasonable layout of port equipment, buildings and port cities. The topography and engineering geological conditions of port land are the most important. There are large areas of flat land in the delta and plain areas, which can be used for port land and city streets near the port. Land is limited in mountainous and hilly areas, where there are mostly marine erosion or river terraces, and the most difficult to deal with are rivers with cliffs and banks of the ocean. The general 1m wharf line needs about 150 ~ 200m2, and its slope should not exceed 5%, but not less than 0.5%, so as not to affect the drainage. The soil quality of the ground and seabed is also very important. In this respect, Yan 'an Port is much more advantageous than Sha 'an Port. The west breakwater of Lianyungang was built on marine silt with poor strength, and its front collapsed several times, which is an example. Hydraulic structures in the harbor must be designed according to the local earthquake intensity, and the influence of modern tectonic movement must be fully estimated. The land area of tidal harbor should be higher than the high tide level 1 ~ 1.5m, and the land area of tidal harbor should be 2 ~ 2.5m higher than the sea surface. River port is different from seaport, which allows some docks to be flooded during flood period and the shore can be stepped. The generalized port construction conditions should also include whether the surrounding natural conditions are conducive to the connection between the port and the hinterland. The mountain range parallel to the coast or river limits the external contact of the port to a certain extent, which brings difficulties to the construction of the communication line from the port to the hinterland. Seaports with navigable estuaries, downstream rivers or river ports in water network areas have the best contact conditions in the hinterland. Some harbors with good natural conditions along the southeast coast of China have failed to become commercial ports, which is related to the inconvenient contact with the hinterland.

The rise of ports such as Lianyungang and Zhanjiang also helps to promote its links with the vast inland areas. 4. Hinterland conditions The port and hinterland complement each other. The port is the gate of its hinterland, and the hinterland is the inner court of its port. This is also the meaning of comparing the port to the mouth and the hinterland to the abdomen. For big seaports, the direct attraction on land is their hinterland; For coastal ports and inland ports, the hinterland still includes the direct joint and indirect attraction scope within the waterway network system. (1) There are more than 80 big ports with annual throughput of1~ 50 million tons in the hinterland of major ports in the world, more than 20 with 50 million tons, and less than 10 with the annual throughput of 10. It can be seen that all the major rivers and seas in the world have vast hinterland or strong economic strength. For example, Rotterdam in the Netherlands is located at the mouth of the Rhine and Maas rivers, and its hinterland includes the central and southern parts of the Federal Republic of Germany and the northeastern part of France. There are industrial and mining areas in Ruhr, manufacturing centers in Cologne, Stuttgart and Munich, and industrial and mining areas in Lorraine, eastern Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. Inland inland river transportation is connected by canals, with dense railways and highways. China and Shanghai are located on the Huangpu River, a tributary of the Yangtze River estuary. It is connected by the upper, middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the hinterland includes Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Shanghai and other provinces and cities, and then it is connected by railways and coastal transportation, including parts of Zhejiang and Fujian. The Yangtze River basin is the main industrial and agricultural base in China, and the total industrial and agricultural output value accounts for more than 40% of the country. Judging from natural conditions and human and material resources, the hinterland of Shanghai Port still has great potential, which is incomparable to other big ports in the world. In addition, due to the development of world maritime trade, a few near-land ports, such as Singapore and Hong Kong, have gained unprecedented prosperity because they are at the crossroads of ocean routes and are not bound by protective tariffs. They mainly rely on the transshipment and distribution of goods, and then develop a certain primary processing and reprocessing industry. Their prosperity is based on the vast hinterland of Southeast Asia and Chinese mainland. (2) Development formula of hinterland and port The situation of hinterland plays a decisive role in the rise and development of port.

The hinterland includes three aspects: the size of the hinterland; The traffic conditions between the hinterland and the port, and the degree of production specialization in the hinterland. These three factors are interrelated. After the port is formed and developed, it will in turn promote the expansion of hinterland, the improvement of transportation network and the further development of hinterland specialization. Generally speaking, the process of port development is as follows: the development of hinterland economy and the appearance of foreign relations-the formation of communication lines between hinterland and port-the initial determination of the scope of port hinterland-the rise of port-the further improvement of hinterland transportation network-the further development of hinterland expansion and production-the continuous growth of the scale of hinterland foreign relations-the expansion of port scale. In a word, this is a process of dialectical development, not a simple circular process. From this point of view, many ports in China are in the embryonic stage of development, such as some ports along the coast of Zhejiang and Fujian; Others have entered the initial stage of development, such as Lianyungang, Zhanjiang and Chongqing. There are also some advanced development stages, such as Shanghai, Dalian, Tianjin, Guangzhou and Wuhan. (3) The hinterland of a port between its pure hinterland and its mixed hinterland is often complicated. In addition to the simple hinterland fixed in the corresponding port, there are often mixed hinterland attracted by more than two ports. Under the capitalist system, there has always been a hinterland dispute between ports. For example, there are sharp struggles between neighboring ports in western Europe and between Atlantic ports and Gulf ports in the United States.

Before liberation, Dalian and Yingkou, Tianjin and Qingdao also had hinterland disputes. The result of competition is that the prosperity of Port A is based on the decline of Port B, which is a manifestation of the capitalist economic law. Under the socialist planned economy, this situation is gone forever. In the mixed hinterland between ports, a reasonable distribution route can be determined according to its goods and flow direction. At the same time, the construction of the port is also based on a reasonable hinterland division. The construction of Zhanjiang Port in China is an example. Although Guangzhou and Zhanjiang are not far apart, the hinterland of the former is mainly south China, and the hinterland of the latter is mainly southwest in the future. Similarly, the distribution lines between Qinhuangdao, Xingang and Qingdao can be determined in a planned way, so that the development of each port can be in its proper place. (4) The types of hinterland ports can be distinguished according to the characteristics of hinterland. According to the geographical types of hinterland production, ports can be divided into: ① mining base type: ports that mainly export cheap and large quantities of mineral raw materials such as coal, oil, metal ore and building materials; (2) Processing zone type: a port that inputs a variety of raw materials and outputs a variety of finished products; (3) Commodity agriculture belt type: export grain and technical crops, import daily necessities, agricultural machinery and fertilizer; ④ Passenger transport type: the port mainly serves the hinterland passenger transport; ⑤ Mixed type: All the above types are combined to make the output and input of the port comprehensive. According to the types of traffic links between ports and hinterland, ports can be divided into: ① ports with inland waterways (including Great Lakes waterways); (2) ports dominated by railways; ③ Ports dominated by pipelines; (4) Ports dominated by highways and other communication lines. The above two classifications are related, so there is a comprehensive classification of ports by hinterland, as shown in Table 73. Table 73 Comprehensive Types of Hinterland Ports Transportation between Hinterland and Ports Hinterland types of inland waterways main railways main pipelines main highways and other transportation trunk lines main mining bases IIA IIA IIB IIC IID commodity agricultural areas IIA IIB IID passenger transport IVA IVB-IVD mixed Vavb-VD Each comprehensive type can be divided into several grades according to the size and throughput of Hinterland.