Why did the Renaissance turn to classical culture, and what impact did this change have on architecture?

Renaissance refers to the rise of/kloc-0 in Italian cities at the end of March, and then spread to western European countries./kloc-0 prevailed in Europe in the 6th century, bringing a period of scientific and artistic revolution and opening the curtain of modern European history, which is considered as the dividing line between the middle ages and the modern. Marxist historians believe that it is the dividing line between feudalism and capitalism. /kloc-at the end of 0/3 century, some advanced intellectuals in Italy's emerging bourgeoisie carried forward the humanistic spirit through the study of ancient Greek and Roman art and culture and literary creation. Another related picture shows that the Renaissance began in Italy at the end of13rd century, which roughly refers to the 400 years that Europe experienced from the Middle Ages to the modern times. The word Renaissance means rebirth or resurrection. It is a vague concept, with no definite start or end date, but it can usually include the evolution of Europe from the brutal dark age to the era of new development in various fields, and the achievements in these fields are beyond the reach of great ancient civilizations.

Many achievements in the Middle Ages contributed to this era symbolizing rebirth. One of them is to restore interest in learning. The First College of Oxford University was established in 1264. By 1400, there are more than 50 universities in Europe. Ancient documents originally preserved by Arabs were translated into Latin, which fostered an atmosphere of education and debate. Europeans had contact with Arabs in the Holy Land, Sicily and Spain, and rediscovered many treasures in this way. The works of Euclid, an ancient Greek mathematician, are an example, and have been the standard mathematics textbooks for Europeans until the19th century. Arabs also spread the new number system, the concept of decimal point and the concept of zero, which were developed in India. About 1450, with the invention of printing, the spread of knowledge accelerated.

The second important contribution is the improvement of living standards, especially in large commercial cities in Italy. The Crusades opened Europeans' eyes to the wealth of the East, especially silk, spices and cotton. Businessmen from Venice, Genoa, Florence and other cities are vying for trade between Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean. After accumulating surplus wealth from commercial activities, these businessmen began to beautify their hometown and city with art. Sculpture, painting, architecture, music, poetry and literature have found new ways to express interesting themes, which have surpassed the religious themes that have been dominant since the Middle Ages. They generally depict daily life, knight stories and adventure plots, so European culture has become more humanized and religious elements have decreased.

The development of technology is also updating, and more effective goods and services appear. Manufacturing, farming and trade, Leonardo da Vinci's body proportion, and the combination of art and science have all been improved and developed, greatly surpassing ancient achievements. The desire for profit encourages innovation and exploration. With the disappearance of declining aristocrats, middle-class businessmen and craftsmen began to strive for political power commensurate with their economic strength.

By the year 1500, European countries were ahead of the world in many important technologies. Europeans have released their vitality by exploring the world, looking for trade routes, the Protestant Reformation and the constant political competition in Europe itself, which has also made this region occupy a pivotal position for centuries.

It is generally believed that the Renaissance originated in Italy in the14th century (the word Renaissance comes from the Italian word Rinascimento, which means regeneration or revival), and it spread to western European countries in the late15th century, reaching its peak in the16th century. 1550, vasari officially took it as the name of the new culture in the biography of the celebrity of the Art Garden. This word is transliterated as Renaissance in French, and is widely used in European countries after17th century. 19th century, western historians further regarded it as the floorboard of western European culture from 14 to16th century. Western historians once thought that this was the revival of ancient Greek and Roman culture and art.

Books.

background

The Middle Ages in Western Europe was a particularly "dark age". Christian church became the spiritual pillar of feudal society at that time. It established a strict hierarchy and regarded God as absolute authority. Everything in literature, art and philosophy must conform to the teaching of the Christian classic Bible, and no one can violate it. Otherwise, the Inquisition will punish him or even execute him. The Bible says that the ancestors of mankind were Adam and Eve. Because they violated God's prohibition, stole the forbidden fruit of heaven and committed a great crime. As their descendants, human beings must atone for their sins from generation to generation, suffer for life, and have no desire to enter heaven in the afterlife. Under the control of the church, literature and art in the Middle Ages were lifeless, and science and technology made no progress. The spread of the Black Death in Europe also aggravated people's panic and made people begin to doubt the absolute authority of religious theology.

In the late Middle Ages, driven by various conditions, the seeds of capitalism first appeared in Italy in Europe. The germination of capitalism is the product of the development of commodity economy to a certain stage. The commodity economy operates through the market, and the choice, bargaining and signing of contracts in the market are all deliberate and voluntary behaviors. This is the embodiment of freedom. Of course, if you want to have these freedoms, you must have the freedom of ownership of the means of production, and the premise of all these freedoms is human freedom. Italy calls for human freedom at this time, and stale Europe needs a new ideological movement to advocate human freedom.

The emergence of the seeds of capitalism also provided the possibility for the rise of this ideological movement. With the prosperity of urban economy, wealthy businessmen, workshop owners and bankers with great wealth have more confidence in their personal value and strength, and are full of the spirit of innovation, enterprising, daring to take risks and daring to win. People generally respect people who are versatile, elegant and knowledgeable. This provided a profound material foundation and a suitable social environment for the Renaissance.

Ancient Greece and Rome made great achievements in literature and art, and people could freely express various academic ideas, which was in sharp contrast with the dark Middle Ages. /kloc-At the end of 0/4, due to the invasion of the Ottoman Empire who believed in Islam, many scholars in East Rome (Byzantium) fled to Western Europe with a large number of ancient Greek and Roman art treasures and books on literature, history and philosophy. There is also a saying that it is a souvenir brought back by the Crusaders during their three crusades (although they gave up halfway for the third time). When they found these books on the road, they moved back and hid them in the basement of the church. After being discovered, they marveled at the art and literature of ancient Rome and began to spread it in order to achieve the achievements of ancient Rome at that time. Some scholars from Eastern Rome established a school called "Greek Academy" in Florence, Italy, to teach the splendid history, civilization and culture of Greece. This brilliant achievement is consistent with the spiritual realm pursued by people after the germination of capitalism. Therefore, many western European scholars demanded to restore the culture and art of ancient Greece and Rome. This demand is like a spring breeze, slowly blowing all over western Europe. The Renaissance arose from this.

Nature: It is a bourgeois cultural movement.

Core: humanistic spirit

Roots: the development of productive forces and the emergence of capitalist buds.

Essence: the essence is to use humanism to combat the bondage of religious theocracy and liberate people's minds. In fact, thinkers in the Renaissance did not completely advocate retro, but promoted new bourgeois ideas in the name of ancient culture.

In Italy, the reasons:

(1) With the emergence of the budding capitalism, the bourgeoisie hopes to break through the shackles of church theology.

(2) Italy has a lot of ancient Greek and Roman cultural classics.

(3)14-16th century (Renaissance) Italian talents gathered in one place.

develop

/kloc-in the 0/4th century, with the development of workshop handicraft industry and commodity economy, the capitalist relationship gradually formed within the European feudal system; Politically, the feudal regime caused widespread dissatisfaction, the national consciousness began to awaken, and the masses of European countries showed a strong desire for national unity. As a result, a new era reflecting the interests and demands of emerging capitalist forces began to appear in culture and art. The emerging bourgeoisie thought that medieval culture was a retrogression, while Greek and Roman classical culture was a bright and developed model, and they tried to revive classical culture-and the so-called "revival" was actually an unprecedented liberation and creation of knowledge and spirit. On the surface, it is to restore the progressive thought of ancient Rome, but in fact it is the spiritual innovation of the emerging bourgeoisie.

At that time, Italy was a multi-city-state country, and each city was an independent or semi-independent country, that is, a city-state. /kloc-After 0/4th century, the city gradually moved from * * * harmony to dictatorship. Dictators indulge in pleasure and believe in neo-Platonism, hoping to get rid of the shackles of religious asceticism and vigorously protect artists' descriptions of secular life. At the same time, the religious radicalism of Franciscans tried to abandon the scholasticism of orthodox religion and praise the beauty of nature and the spiritual value of human beings. The Vatican is also moving towards corruption. The pope's enjoyment is more severe than that of secular dictators. They are also protecting artists and allowing art to deviate from orthodox religious dogma. Philosophy and science are gradually developing to a more relaxed atmosphere, and they are also brewing the prelude to the religious reform.

Zhang Ronghuan, a contemporary scholar and anthropologist, put forward the idea of human revival, which represents a new peak of contemporary revival thought, mainly manifested in his ten directions of reviving human values:

First, human beings have rediscovered the greatness of human beings and personality, affirmed human values and abilities, and put forward that human beings should cultivate their personality and have wisdom;

Second, pay attention to people's value, improve people's thinking ability and creative potential, encourage a positive attitude towards life and advocate the spirit of positive development;

Third, pay attention to real life and spread the elements of truth, goodness and beauty in science, philosophy and theology to people's daily lives;

Fourth, it is required to express people's feelings in philosophy and art, so that violence and hypocrisy will die out and people will live in harmony;

Fifth, the realistic spirit of unity and happiness, first of all, we must study people, never be satisfied with a little knowledge of other things, and strive to create an optimistic and enterprising spirit of a realistic and happy life, so that people can get rid of the shackles of past history, nationality, religion and geographical division;

6. Everyone can believe in the truth;

Seven, establish the legal order of social public belief and its corresponding ethical spirit, so that the interests of all social strata can be expressed openly and freely, so that social truth can be truly expressed;

8. Reflect the highly intelligent social existence in modern society with sincere democracy;

Nine, let people have a logical way of thinking and encourage the integration of other ways of thinking of neo-logicism;

Ten, improve people's wisdom in public affairs, in the system of individuals, families, groups, organizations, countries, and even the United Nations, so that people can develop harmoniously with each other.

Three outstanding literary figures

1 Dante

Dante (1265- 132 1). The pioneer of the Renaissance, which originated in northern Italy. It is generally believed that the first representative is Dante, and his representative is The Divine Comedy. His works criticized and exposed the corruption and stupidity of medieval religious rule in an implicit way for the first time, and were written in local dialect instead of Latin, the official literary language of medieval Europe. He believed that the ancient Greek and Roman times were the most perfect times of human nature, and it was against nature to suppress human nature in the Middle Ages. Although he studied Latin literature deeply and extensively, he wrote a large number of lyric poems in the form of sonnets in Italian dialect, which were warmly welcomed by the rulers of various cities and countries.

2 Petrarch

Petrarch is an Italian poet. 1304 was born in arezzo on July 20th, and 1374 died in Alqua on July 9th. The masterpiece is songji. Father is a noble family and lawyer in Florence. He went into exile in France with his father since childhood, and then studied law. After his father died, he devoted himself to literary activities and traveled around Europe. He also worked as a priest and had the opportunity to go in and out of the church and court, observe life and pursue knowledge. He proposed replacing "God's Thought" with "Man's Thought" and was called "Father of Humanism".

3 Boccaccio

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), an outstanding representative of the Italian Renaissance, was a humanist. Decameron, the representative work, criticizes religious conservatism and advocates that "happiness lies on earth", which is regarded as the declaration of the Renaissance.

Three outstanding artistic artists

1 Da Vinci Mona Lisa

Da Vinci (1452- 15 19) was the most famous artist, sculptor, architect, engineer, scientist, master of science, literary theorist, great philosopher, poet, musician and inventor in the Italian Renaissance. Because he is an all-rounder, he is also called "the most perfect representative of the Renaissance". He was born in Finch, a suburb of Florence, and died in France. Mural The Last Supper, Altar Madonna in the Rock and Portrait Mona Lisa are three masterpieces of his life. These three works are one of the treasures left by Leonardo da Vinci to the world art treasure house and the cornerstone of European art.

Raphael

Raffaello Santi (1483 ~ 1520) is an Italian painter. 1483 was born in urbino on April 6th, and 1520 died in Rome on April 6th. Formerly known as Raphael St. George. His series of portraits of the Virgin Mary are different from similar themes painted by medieval painters, and all of them embody humanistic thoughts with maternal warmth and youthful bodybuilding. Among them, Notre Dame de Orioles (Uffizi Art Museum in Florence), Notre Dame de Grasses (Vienna Museum of Art History) and Notre Dame de Gardens (Louvre Museum) are the most famous. 1512 ~1513 painted a large oil painting "The Sistine Madonna". The figures are similar in size to real people, and the triangle composed of the virgin and saints is solemn and balanced. The Madonna and Jesus are strong, showing the happiness and greatness of maternal love. The other, which is taller, is the Madonna of foligno in the form of altar painting, as well as the Madonna of Chair and Madonna of Alba later created, all of which can be regarded as his perfect works. After 1509, he was invited by Pope Julius II to paint the murals of the Vatican Palace, among which the murals of the signature hall were the most outstanding. These paintings all over the walls and roofs of the hall represent four aspects of human spiritual activities: theology, philosophy, poetics and law. In addition to his unique painting style, his works also pay special attention to the full harmony between painting expression and architectural decoration, giving people a solemn and rich feeling. Other important works in this period include: Eliodoro was banished from the Temple and Bolshenna Mass in Eliodoro Hall, Fire of Porgo by the Fire Department, and Victory of Galatia by Fanesina Villa. These works have reached a new level in image-building and the use of light and color, and are regarded as the pinnacle of ancient and modern mural art, and his portraits have also achieved great success. Both form and spirit are full of charm. Most of them use the micro-side half-length posture to hide the background, and only the natural and friendly manner of the characters stands out in the picture. Representative works include The Image in Castiglio and The Image of a Woman in a Yarn.

David 3 Michelangelo

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475- 1564), a great Italian painter, sculptor and architect in the Renaissance, is the representative of the highest peak of sculpture in the Renaissance. From 65438 to 0496, Michelangelo came to Rome and created the first batch of representative works, such as Bacchus, Dionysus and Mourning for Christ. 150 1 year, he returned to Florence and completed the world-famous statue of David in four years. 1505 In Rome, he was ordered by Pope Julius II to build the Pope's tomb. 1506 returned to Florence after the work was stopped. 1508, he was ordered to return to Rome, and it took four years and five months to finish the ceiling mural of the famous Sistine Chapel. 15 13 years, the construction of the Pope's Mausoleum was resumed, and Michelangelo created the famous "Moses, Bound Slave and Dying Slave". 15 19- 1534, in Florence, he created the greatest work of his life-the group sculpture of medici family Mausoleum in the church of San Lorenzo. 1536, Michelangelo returned to the Ting Church in Romasis and spent nearly six years creating the great mural "The Doomsday Judgment". After that, he lived in Rome, engaged in sculpture, architecture and a little painting, until 1564 died in his studio in February.

Scientific achievements

literature

Writers all over the world began to use their own dialects instead of Latin for literary creation, which promoted the development of popular literature and injected a large number of literary works into various languages, including novels, poems, essays, folk songs, plays and so on.

In Italy, there were "three outstanding literary figures" in the early Renaissance. Dante wrote many academic works and poems in his life, among which the famous ones are "New Life" and "Divine Comedy". Petrarch is the originator of humanism and is known as the "father of humanism". He was the first to call for the revival of classical culture and put forward the idea that "humanism" opposed "theology". Petrarch mainly wrote many beautiful poems, among which the representative work is Lyric Sonnets. Boccaccio is the founder of Italian national literature, and decameron, a collection of short stories, is his masterpiece.

In France, the Renaissance obviously formed two factions, one is optimates represented by Seven Star Poetry Society, and the other is Democrats represented by rabelais. The Seven Star Poetry Society, represented by Longsha and Du Beilai, has made outstanding contributions to language and poetry theory. They first put forward the idea of unifying national languages, which promoted the development of French national languages and national literature. But they rejected folk poetry and only served a few nobles. Rabelais is an outstanding humanist writer after Boccaccio and a representative of the French Renaissance Democrats. The Biography of the Giant, which he created in 20 years, is a realistic work interwoven with reality and fantasy, and occupies an important position in the history of European literature and education.

In Britain, the representatives are Thomas Moore and Shakespeare. Thomas Moore is a famous humanist thinker and the founder of utopian socialism. 15 16 Utopia, which he wrote in Latin, is the first work of utopian socialism. Shakespeare is a gifted playwright and poet. He, together with Homer, Dante and Goethe, is called the four great European writers. His works have complete structure, vivid plot, rich and refined language and outstanding personality, which represent the highest achievement of European Renaissance literature and have a far-reaching impact on the development of European realistic literature.

In Spain, the most outstanding representatives are Cervantes and Vega. Cervantes is a realistic writer, dramatist and poet. He wrote a large number of poems, plays and novels, of which Don Quixote, a long satirical novel, was the most famous, which had a great influence on the development of European literature. Vega is a dramatist, novelist and poet, the founder of Spanish national drama, and is known as the "father of Spanish drama". He is one of the few prolific writers in the world. He wrote more than 2,000 plays in his life, and more than 600 have been handed down to this day. There are religious drama, historical drama, divine drama, robe and sword drama, pastoral drama and other forms, which deeply reflect the social reality of Spain and are deeply loved by the masses. The most outstanding representative work is Yangquan Village.

music

The classical music works of the Renaissance were mainly produced from 1400 to 1600. The end of this period is more definite than the beginning, unlike other art categories. From 65438 to the beginning of the 5th century, there was no obvious change in musical performance, and it can be said that the musical characteristics of the Renaissance were gradually changing.

To be sure, the music works in the early Renaissance mainly relied on the third interval as the chord. Polyphonic music, which began in the12nd century, became more detailed throughout the14th century, independent of sound expression. /kloc-The music in the early 5th century tends to be simple and the sound is smooth.

By the end of 15, polyphonic religious music began to become complicated again, which was related to the extremely developed paintings at that time in a sense. Then in the early16th century, music began to simplify again.

In the late16th century, music, especially minor, tended to be more complex and chromatic. At this time in Florence, musicians began to turn to the classical school, trying to restore the dreamy music form of ancient Greece through poetry.

Thought of Renaissance Works

Renaissance works embody humanism: advocating individual liberation and opposing asceticism and religious views in the Middle Ages; Advocate scientific culture, oppose obscurantism, and get rid of the shackles of the church on people's thoughts; Affirm human rights, oppose theocracy, and abandon all authority and traditional dogma as the basis of theology and scholasticism; Supporting centralization and opposing feudal separatism are the main ideas of humanism. The representative works include Dante's Divine Comedy, Boccaccio's decameron, Machiavelli's The Prince, and rabelais's Biography of the Giant.

Renaissance art praised the beauty of the human body, claiming that the proportion of the human body is the most harmonious in the world, and applied it to architecture. Although a series of paintings and sculptures still focus on religious stories, they all show the scenes of ordinary people and pull God to the ground.

Humanists began to study the Bible by studying classical literature and translated it into the national language, which led to the rise of the Reformation.

Humanism praises the secular and despises the heaven, flaunts rationality rather than the revelation of God, affirms that "man" is the creator and enjoyer of secular life, requires literature and art to express people's thoughts and feelings, scientifically seeks for the welfare of people, educates and develops people's personality, and requires people's thoughts, feelings and wisdom to be liberated from the shackles of theology. Advocating individual freedom has played a great role in historical development.

astronomy

1543, the polish astronomer Copernicus published the theory of celestial bodies, in which he proposed a Heliocentrism system different from Ptolemaic geocentric theory. Bruno, an Italian thinker, declared in his works "On Infinity, Universe and World" and "On Cause, Origin and Unity" that the universe is infinite in space and time, and the sun is only the solar system, not the center of the universe. Galileo invented the astronomical telescope in 1609, published the Star Messenger in 16 10, and published the Dialogue between Ptolemy and Copernicus in 1632. Kepler, a German astronomer, put forward three laws of planetary motion in New Astronomy (1609) and Harmony of the World (16 19) by studying the observation data of Tycho, a Danish astronomer, and determined that the planetary motion around the sun along an elliptical orbit is not constant.

mathematics

Algebra made great progress in the Renaissance, and the solutions of cubic and quartic equations were found. Cardano, an Italian, published a formula for finding the roots of cubic equations in his book Great Skills, but the discovery of this formula should be attributed to another scholar, Tattaglia. The solution of the quartic equation was discovered by Ferrari, a student in cardano, and also recorded in The Great Book. Bombelli expounded the irreducibility of cubic equations in his works, used imaginary numbers, and improved the popular algebraic symbols at that time. Symbolic algebra was founded by the French mathematician Veda in the16th century. He published "Introduction to Analytical Methods" at 159 1, systematically arranged algebra, and for the first time consciously used letters to represent unknowns and known numbers. In his other book, On the Identification and Correction of Equations, David improved the solutions of cubic and quartic equations, and established the relationship between the roots and coefficients of quadratic and cubic equations, which is known as Vieta's theorem in modern times. Trigonometry also made great progress during the Renaissance. On Triangle, written by German mathematician Reggio Montanus, is the first trigonometry work independent of astronomy in Europe. The book systematically expounds the plane triangle and spherical triangle, as well as a very accurate trigonometric function table. On the basis of redefining trigonometric function, Rhaticus, a student of Copernicus, made a more accurate trigonometric function table. After the French Descartes established the coordinate system in 1637, he successfully founded analytic geometry. Fermat founded tangent method, maximum method, minimum method and definite integral method, which made great contributions to calculus. It limits the study of indefinite equations to the range of integers, thus creating a mathematical branch of number theory. In the interaction and work with Pascal, the basic principle of probability theory-the concept of mathematical expectation was established.

physics

In physics, Galileo discovered three laws of free falling, throwing objects and shaking through many experiments, which made people have a new understanding of the universe. His student Torricelli proved the air pressure through experiments and invented the mercury barometer. Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the law of pressure propagation in liquids and gases. British scientist Boyle discovered the law of gas pressure. Descartes used his coordinate geometry to engage in optical research, and put forward the theoretical derivation of refraction law for the first time in Refractive Optics. He also clearly put forward the law of conservation of momentum for the first time: the total amount of matter and motion will never change. Descartes made a preliminary study on collision and centrifugal force, which created conditions for Huygens' success later.

Physiology and medicine

Belgian doctor Vesaliua Uss published the book Human Body Structure, which challenged Galen's "Trinity" theory. Spanish doctor Servit discovered the small circulation system of blood, which proved that blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs and reaches the left ventricle through a tortuous route. Harvey, a British anatomist, published the theory of heart-blood movement through a large number of animal anatomy experiments, which systematically explained the law of blood movement and the working principle of the heart. He pointed out that the heart is the center of blood movement and the source of strength. This great discovery made him the founder of modern physiology.

geography

There has been a revolutionary leap in navigation technology, and explorers from Portugal, Spain and Italy have started a series of long-distance navigation activities. The geographical discoveries of Columbus and Magellan provide strong evidence for the theory of the earth circle.

The rediscovery of printing in Europe and the spread of papermaking, compass and gunpowder (the four great inventions of China) from the East promoted the rapid spread of scientific ideas.

build

Renaissance architecture is an architectural style that was born in Italy in the14th century with the cultural movement of Renaissance. Based on the criticism of the supremacy of theocracy in the Middle Ages and the affirmation of humanitarianism, architects hope to reshape the harmonious order of the ideal classical society with the help of classical proportions. Therefore, generally speaking, Renaissance architecture pays attention to order and proportion, with strict facade and plane composition and column system inherited from classical architecture. There is a strong pursuit of the proportion of architecture, such as symmetrical modeling with multiples of 3 and 2, centralized restoration of "nature", drawing with a ruler, and opposing Gothic architecture dominated by circles and squares.

I hope it helps you.