Curses and fines on epitaphs

The concept of putting a curse on a grave or graveyard is most well known in ancient Egypt, but it is also common in other ancient civilizations. Grave or grave is the eternal home of the deceased's body, and his (her) soul can return at will, which contains all souvenirs, tools, food and drinks, as well as various items that the deceased wants or needs in the next life. Therefore, many of these tombs (especially those of the upper classes and nobles) are actually treasure houses, which have attracted the attention of thieves.

In addition, people who have no money to bury their deceased relatives or are unwilling to spend money may secretly bury them in other people's graves, or people who can't afford a tombstone may steal a used name, scrape off the name of their predecessor and use it for their own purposes. In order to prevent any of these serious violations, epitaphs usually contain curses, warning that anyone who disturbs the grave will have terrible consequences-and the fines that the authorities will impose.

Examples of curse epitaphs range from ancient China to Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome and Britain, and a large number of epitaphs have been found in Anatolia (now Turkey) outside Egypt. Anatolia, especially Chiriki, has long been associated with pirates. Therefore, a large number of cursed epitaphs in this area are probably a reaction to criminal factors and a necessary preventive measure against grave robbery. Although the study of these Anatolian epitaphs shows that all ethnic groups and different religions have used them (Anatolia has a huge Jewish community), most of the survivors are Greeks. This is because there are many Greek colonies in this area and their views on the afterlife.

Greek afterlife

To desecrate someone's grave is to defile their memory. If the tomb is destroyed, the well-being of the soul in the afterlife may be threatened.

The ancient Greeks believed that the individual soul survived after physical death and entered the afterlife. After death, the soul is judged by three judges in the underworld, namely Eikaas, Minos and Rada Mantis. According to the behavior before death and the kindness of the judge, it was sent to the country where it deserved. The souls of the wicked are sent to Tar talos, ordinary people-neither particularly kind nor particularly evil-go to the daffodil meadow, those who have been hurt by love go to the place of mourning, and those who have performed well in virtue life are taken to the Elysium, where there are blessings from the islands. No matter which of these fields the soul ends up in, its persistence and prosperity depend on the memory of the living. Friends and relatives of the deceased need to remember them to keep their souls strong and full of vitality.

Graves or graves are not only places to put the bodies and personal belongings of the deceased, but also a heartfelt reminder of their identity before their death. Of course, they once existed and are memorable. To desecrate someone's grave is to defile their memory. If the grave is seriously damaged or the tombstone is stolen, the well-being of the soul in the afterlife may be threatened. Scholar Andreas Vourloumis commented:

Of course, one of human beings' main concerns about death is to be remembered after their death, but also to be buried properly, so that their souls can rest in another place and continue their journey ..... There are too many funeral curses/prohibitions on the epitaph as an effort to protect the grave; These are publicly carved on tombstones by the owner of the grave to warn any potential offenders. (2)

The tomb needs to be kept intact, so that the soul can get peace in the afterlife, otherwise, the consequences will be terrible not only for the soul, but also for the living relatives of the deceased. A soul troubled by the desecration of a grave may come back to haunt the living, causing all kinds of sadness from physical and mental health damage to financial difficulties and even death. In order to keep the spirit happy-whether for the spirit itself or for the benefit of the living-the epitaph clearly stipulates the curse and fine to warn the blasphemer.

Greek curse and fine

The curse of the Greeks is considered as a guarantee of justice in this life or the next, because they pray to the gods to protect the innocent and promise to punish the offenders. Of course, these curses are not limited to cemeteries, but can be placed anywhere through a structure named curse slate explained by scholar HS Versnel:

Curse is the hope that evil will befall one or more people. In this broad definition, several different types can be distinguished according to background, motivation and conditions. The most direct curse is the curse inspired by hatred, which lacks any clear religious, moral or legal legitimacy. The typical representative of this kind is the so-called cursed slate (Greek: katade * * * os；; Latin: defixio), a thin lead plate is engraved with curses aimed at affecting people's behavior or welfare. (Oxford Classical Civilization Companion, 20 1)

These curses most often appear in the prescribed form, such as "If someone moves my tombstone (or boundary marker or something else), they may be cursed in one way or another, and I will call the gods (according to the specific situation, mention the specific gods) to testify and stand on my side." As mentioned above, people think that such a curse can be relied on as a deterrent, but for the sake of safety, criminal prosecution of illegal acts is obviously regarded as a threat to grave robbers. In ancient Athens, if someone was convicted of robbing a tomb, he would be fined, and the fine was not cheap. Scholar Danielle Allen wrote:

It is estimated that the annual food cost of an adult male is 36 drachmas, while at the end of the 4th century, the daily wage of an unskilled worker was 1.5 drachmas, so it can be accurate to 10 and 50 drachmas ... Even in a relatively small court case, the fine may be as high as 65,438+0,000 drachmas. (4)

Fines are sometimes written into the epitaph by the owner, but if not, they are decided by the court. There is no fine in the books that the judge can refer to. On the contrary, the Athens court will impose any punishment they agree according to the crime and the defendant's situation. However, even a huge fine or the wrath of the gods can't stop grave robbers-in any ancient civilization-for the simple reason that the rewards outweigh the risks. Sometimes, wealth can be found even in an obscure grave. If a person can put aside his belief in gods and their justice, all he has to do is not to be caught.

Worship of the graves of Sibelli and Anatolia

However, it is not easy to ignore the gods, because they are not only cursed, but their images are often set as statues inside and outside the cemetery. The Greeks who settled in Anatolia brought their beliefs, but over time, these beliefs were combined with the religions of the indigenous people. Guluwei people and Hati people have lived in this area since the 10 century. In 2500 BC, people worshipped a mother goddess. She was adopted by the Phrygia people (about 1200-700 BC) and was called matar for short, but her nickname was Kebe Leia (Mountain) or Sibelli. Her worship center is located in Percenus, Phrygia (central Anatolia), and she is worshipped in the kingdom of Lydia, coastal areas and other places in Anatolia.

Cybele is the goddess of fertility, but she is also responsible for people's health and overall well-being, protecting them in times of large-scale troubles (such as war or famine) and personal difficulties. Her spouse is Attis, a plant god who came back from the dead. Her Sect advocates the belief of eternal life after death, so it emphasizes the importance of protecting graves and graves.

Statues of Cybele, sometimes accompanied by lions or other animals symbolizing strength, are placed in temples to delimit one area or another. For example, the statue of Cybele is erected between buildings to make it clear that the business of one building is completely different from that of another building, and it is between properties for the same purpose. The image of Cybele not only reminds people to respect other people's space, but also serves as a powerful dividing line, forbidding people to cross from one area to another without sufficient reasons-which means "not doing good to another person". Similarly, the shrine of Cybele was set outside graves and tombs. According to the scholar Sharon R. Steadman, "Phrygia created a sacred space to commemorate the boundary between the living and the dead" (572).

Just as Cybele guards people's farmland, homes and businesses, she also guards their graves to ensure that they remain intact. However, if, for some reason, when a grave robber appeared, she was distracted or involved in other things, then the same type of curse and fine threat observed in ancient Greece would appear in the epitaph.

The curse and tomb of Anatolia

As HS Versnel explained, Anatolia's curse follows the Greek paradigm and almost always belongs to the modern definition of "conditional curse":

Curse curses those unknown people who dare to violate some sacred or secular laws, regulations and treaties. They are common in the public domain and expressed by the community through its representatives (magistrates, priests). A typical combination of curse and prayer [is that they have the same characteristics as judicial prayer]. Therefore, criminals find themselves in the position of blasphemers, so the power of law can enforce their rights, even if only God can help them. (Oxford Classical Civilization Companion, 20 1)

Even these threats and court proceedings from Cybele failed to stop the grave robbers, and the description of Lydia Anatolia's grave explains the reason well. Scholar Elizabeth Bauham wrote:

The sacrifices in Lydia's tombs are not specific to certain types of tombs. The same objects were also found in various types of Lydia's tombs, the most common being decorations and banquet utensils. It is usually obvious that the deceased was buried in jewelry and other clothes [for example] A young "bride" was buried intact in a sarcophagus in a large cemetery room: the location found showed that she was wearing gold, with rounded corners in her hair, gold earrings and beaded necklaces, a gold ring decorated with lions, and a dress sewn with gold stickers. Although the skeletal evidence from Lydia's tomb is rarely analyzed, this kind of jewelry is unlikely to be limited to female tombs. Many other cemeteries and looted graves have unearthed necklaces, rings, earrings, bracelets, pins, brooches and costumes. These items are usually made of gold, but glass and colored gems, such as agate and agate, are also used. (6)

In order to protect these treasures, the curse and fine in the epitaph are clearly written. They must carry enough threats to at least make potential robbers think twice, because they risk disturbing the grave. Here are some examples provided by Andreas Vourloumis's works:

Anatolian tombstone, of unknown origin, circa AD 154: "Whoever wants to cut off a part of this monument can bury his children in the same way." (8)

Anatolian tombstone with unknown age: "In this tomb, unless I allow it before my death or stipulate in my will, if someone brings it in to bury someone, he will fine my beloved city 5,000 dinars and bear the crime of grave robbery." ( 10)

Anatolian tombstone found in Alicia during the Roman Empire: "Anna and her son Sharon built this monument for her son Beaumont; If someone moves or transfers these monuments, they may be destroyed with his descendants. " (6)

Vourloumis pointed out that curses involving threatening the children of robbers are considered to be particularly effective, because one risks not only his own life, but also his own. In addition, according to the tradition of Mesopotamia, this concept appeared before the Bible (Exodus 20, Numbers 14, etc.). ), fathers' sins will be passed on to their sons-grave robbers risk not only their children's future health and happiness, but also their children's children.

Nevertheless, as Vourloumis also pointed out, even this is not enough to play a deterrent role, because a person's current needs will replace any other considerations:

As a raw material, marble was very expensive in ancient times, and it was not uncommon for tombstones to be looted. The existing inscription on a stolen stone tablet was completely scraped off and engraved with new words. (2)

This is a particularly appalling crime, because it erases the person's memory of his or her last resting place. Taking someone's tombstone is to erase any trace of who they were and what they meant to others. Vourloumis wrote:

Greeks and [later] Christians believed that removing the tombstone was the most serious insult to the deceased and his grave, because the stone tablet was the most distinctive element of his identity. (2)

If a marble slab is stolen for personal use, it will be even more shocking, because they clearly know the importance of this slate, because they will use it to achieve the same goal. However, most likely, most of them were stolen by thieves, and then the thieves sold them to merchants or pirates who traded elsewhere. At least from the period of Egyptian Pharaoh Okhennathan (BC 1353- 1336), even earlier, Anatolia had contact with pirates. Lukacs' piracy in Anatolia can be traced back to the reign of Akhenaton, because he wrote a letter to another king complaining about it. Silesia pirates are the most famous pirates in this area. Their network is all over Anatolia, and it is likely to cross the northern territory once occupied by Lukacs from the southern coast of Silesia.

conclusion

Due to historical reasons, the record of conviction and punishment of grave robbers in Anatolia is far less comprehensive than that in Egypt and other regions. Anatolia was conquered by other countries (Akkadians, Hittites, Assyrians, Phrygia, Persians, Alexander the Great, Seleuces, Ptolemaics, Romans, Armenians, Byzantines and Caliphs) and split into independent kingdoms. Before these records, few people cared about these residents.

However, efforts to curb grave robbery may follow a pattern similar to that of ancient Egypt. When the economy is stable, graves will still be stolen, but almost as frequently or blatantly as when the economy is in recession or weakness. When the new kingdom (about 1570-about 1069 BC) is dying, thieves are more concerned about how to support their families than what any curse or law may do to them.

Egyptian court records of 65438 BC+065438 BC+065438 BC In fact, law enforcement officers and court scribes are easily bribed, and some of the most grave robbers have caused irreparable damage to graves, far exceeding the degree required for theft, and are often released and detained after a short action (Lewis, 256-257). In Anatolia, the example may be the same, because people always try their best to serve their own interests, and there are not many curses, no matter how terrible or the threat of fines, no matter how steep, or will change it forever.

refer to

Andreas Voloomis. Pray for the funeral of Anatolian epitaph. Leiden University: School of Humanities, August 20 12 15, p. 1- 17.

Benson, m. Encyclopedia of ancient Egypt Gramercy Book Company, 20 10.

Danielle Allen. "The punishment of ancient Athens." Stoa: Electronic Publishing Alliance of Humanities, March 23, 2003, PP. N/A.

Religion and magic in ancient Egypt. Penguin book, 2003.

Elizabeth Baum. "Lydia's funeral custom of Thaddeus" Thaddeus, archaeological exploration of Thaddeus 20 19, pp.n/a.

His Versnel. "Curse." Classic and Civilized Oxford Company, edited by S. hornblower and S. Spovers, Oxford University Press, 20 14.

Je Louis, the masterpiece of ancient Egyptian witnesses. Publishing house in operation, 2003.

Peters, Philip and the harvest of Greek culture. Barnes & noble bookstore, 1996.

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