/kloc-what important changes have taken place in the manager structure and social nature of China in the middle of the 0/9th century?

From the middle of19th century to the middle of 20th century, China society has experienced a historical change from ancient times to modern times in the throes of external troubles and internal troubles. In order to prevent chaos, consolidate the foundation and maintain imperial rule, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty constantly strengthened the state power institutions, but also stepped up their infiltration and control of the vast rural areas. During the Japanese puppet regime, the Japanese invaders imposed cruel colonial rule on the people in Northeast China and other occupied areas through the puppet regime they supported. The Nanjing National Government, established in the bloody battle, experienced different choices in adjusting and handling the relationship between the state and rural society. During the democratic revolution, the revolutionary regime led by * * * experienced a historical evolution from the Soviet Union represented by workers and peasants to the people's democratic regime. In connection with this, the rural grass-roots regime she led also experienced structural changes in different historical stages.

Keywords: rural governance; Late Qing dynasty; Puppet Manchu grass-roots regime; Nanjing National Government; Democratic revolutionary regime

/kloc-From the middle of the 9th century to the middle of the 20th century, China experienced the most turbulence, suffered the most damage and had the deepest influence on the development of contemporary China. In this century, China's rural governance structure has spanned the historical changes from ancient times to modern times in the throes of foreign invasion and internal turmoil.

First, the historical changes of rural governance structure in the late Qing Dynasty

In order to avoid chaos, consolidate the foundation, maintain imperial rule and seek "hereditary replacement", the rulers of the Qing Dynasty took power in the Central Plains in 1644. At the same time, they stepped up their infiltration and control of the vast rural areas.

(A) Li Jia system and Baojia system

In the Qing dynasty (especially in the early period), the rural governance structure was generally inherited from the Ming system. Although there are many names of rural organizations, such as Li Jia, Oak Society, Jiabao, Bent, etc. As far as its social function is concerned, most of them have different names and the same surname, which can be roughly divided into Li Jia system and Bao Jia system. According to the regulations of the Qing Dynasty, 1 10 households were located in the mainland, among which pushing grain was the longest. The bottom is "A", and A has a head. There was a leader in the annual service, and the top ten people in A participated in the one-mile project. Armor is edited every five years. In the early Qing dynasty, Jia went hand in hand and brought out the best in each other. At this time, the main duties of Li Jia's system were to fabricate tax books, investigate and urge money and grain. It can be said that the corvee and land tax were integrated into one system, so it was highly valued by the Qing government. Since the implementation of the land equalization system in Yongzheng, because the land equalization system is the single standard for tax payment, the money and grain of the land are basically fixed, and Li Jia is no longer a community organization in the original sense, but has the function of grassroots social management. In addition to "managing the internal affairs" (managing the autonomous affairs of internal affairs), the village head is also exempted from "hooking officials" (helping the government run errands).

The Qing government practiced Li Jia system and Bao Jia system. It is stipulated that "the household should give a card with a letter seal, with the name and number of people written on it, and then indicate the destination, and others should check where it came from." People who look suspicious don't ask questions. As a matter of fact, they are not allowed to stay. Ten households have a card head, ten cards have a head, and ten armour have a head. If the number of people in the village is less than the number of people, it will be classified as a minority. There is nothing to hand over for inspection, and there is nothing to help each other. "(1) and regulations in the dragon, the dragon by the local" rich people reported to the official point ". It can be seen that the so-called Baojia system appeared and existed as a grass-roots public security organization. It should be said that the implementation of the Baojia system really played a role in maintaining the ruling order of the Qing Empire. After Yongzheng, the Baojia system has also undergone a historic change, eventually replacing the Lijia system and becoming a grass-roots social administrative organization with comprehensive functions. Jiabao production is the most important service system for the Qing rulers to govern the countryside, and its function is mainly manifested in three aspects. The first is to ease the troubles and maintain rural public security. The Qing government clearly stipulated that the term of office of brand and A was three years, and they were replaced at the expiration, and the warranty period was changed once a year. The escort is not only in charge of household registration inspection, Wang Chen inspection, blocking royal police affairs, inn inspection, and issuing printed cards, but also in charge of all things in a township, such as tax arrears, food arrears, disputes over farmland and houses, merits and demerits of lawsuits, and homicide trials. It is precisely because of the role of Baojia system that most cases of "family marriage and land litigation" can be known without the assistance of witnesses. ② The second is to accept the tolerance. The report said, "When you are fully protected, you are an official service. "The local officials know everything about the villages under their jurisdiction, but they have to ask questions." (3) Therefore, assisting county officials to handle some related administrative affairs within their jurisdiction has been regarded by most people at that time as the due duty of Garbo County Chief. The third is to educate the ethnic groups in the countryside and integrate the ethical resources of the grassroots system. After the establishment of the national political power in the Qing Dynasty, it was resisted by the adherents of the former dynasty in the vast Han areas. Therefore, in order to avoid chaos and consolidate the foundation, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty, while suppressing their rulers by armed means, did not forget to "honor punishment and turn people into customs" and raised the banner of institutional ethics with "loyalty" and "filial piety" as the core. The education of rural people is naturally inseparable from the support of Garbo organization. In addition, the Garbo organization also assumed the responsibility of providing relief for famine, because Garbo leaders are familiar with the situation of rural families.

(2) Ying Yong

Tuan Yong was born in Jiaqing period, when the social control in Qing Dynasty was seriously weak. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, the rule of the Qing Dynasty was hit by double pressures from home and abroad. At home, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement and the Nian Army Uprising broke out one after another, while abroad, western powers were eyeing it. Under this historical background, the vast rural society has also been greatly impacted, the small-scale peasant economy has begun to collapse, the society has become increasingly out of order, and the original rural governance structure has encountered functional obstacles. Therefore, a new form of township governance structure-Yong Lian came into being. Yong ying was first born in Sichuan, Hubei and other areas where Anbaili was active during Jiaqing period. The emergence of the League League not only catered to the needs of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty to suppress religious plans at that time, but also enabled the Qing Dynasty to finally find an organizational form to strengthen rural social control.

In the third year of Xianfeng (1853), the Qing dynasty issued a decree that "all provinces should have their own officials, no matter what officials they are, people registered in Beijing should choose a person with good conduct and several people". Fundamentally speaking, the League is a rural governance structure derived from the Jiabao organization. Its basic composition is: first clear Jiabao, then select able-bodied men, unite the people and apply for implementation. (5) However, the difference between Yong ying and Po organization is not only that the scale of Yong ying is larger than that of Po organization, but more importantly, their functions are different. What should always be valued is "being good to neighbors, sharing weal and woe", gathering rural scattered forces. At the same time, Yong Lian follows the structural principles of households and cards, cards and A, A and Bao, Bao and Tuan or Chang. While cooperating with the government to eliminate bandits, Yong Lian paid special attention to protecting the safety of his hometown. Therefore, in Yingyong organization, the concept of mulberry can be seen everywhere. Yong Tuan was jointly organized by officials and gentry, and the gentry who organized Yong Tuan were also sent by the central government, thus making the formal authority of the state and the informal authority of the local authorities fit again.

(3) Xiancheng and the Inspection Department

It is generally believed that the county-level yamen is the most basic administrative organization set up by the state at the local level, which has been the case in several dynasties since the Song Dynasty. The situation in Qing dynasty changed, especially in the middle and late Qing dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty have been trying to extend the official authority system of the country to the county level, and the Garbo organization and training mentioned above is the result of this pursuit. The Baojia system in the middle and late Qing Dynasty and Ying Yong, which was derived from the Baojia system, have been "administrative". In addition, even the establishment of uncontroversial county-level government offices was more complicated in the Qing Dynasty than in previous dynasties.

In the Qing dynasty, the county government not only printed official county orders, but also had assistant officials and subordinate officials. The two officials are Xiancheng and the main book, and the officials have the positions of canon history and procurator. Among them, the county magistrate's assistant official book and the official official office are usually located in the county seat. Xian Cheng, the official of Zhengbapin, is an official whose position is second only to that of the magistrate of a county. He uses the master book to take charge of the grain, horses, taxes, patrol and household registration of a county. Unlike the main book, Xiancheng has a special office. More significantly, some Xiancheng offices are located in other important towns in the county, not in the city. The town where the county institutions are located is generally a transportation hub or a commercially developed place at the head of Chengwei Township in the county. These county offices located outside the city are often called "second offices" by the people, and actually exercise the administrative functions of the deputy county-level authority system. However, its establishment is not of universal significance. Until Guangxu period, there were only 345 county officials in China. (4) The inspection department is a magistrate of a county, and it is responsible for catching thieves and investigating traitors and forgeries from the beginning of Do. Generally speaking, the inspection department is not located in the county, but in the pass and the bustling place far away from the state and county government, which is more obvious than the county government. For example, in Nanhai County, Guangdong Province, there are five inspection departments in addition to the main book of catching genus and Jiujiang, and each inspection department has 5 to 28 castles. The inspection department relies on the militia within its jurisdiction, ranging from a dozen to hundreds. In addition to acting as an arrest agent, the procuratorial department often assists the magistrate to perform the duties of regulating civil disputes and implementing judicial and social relief. In a word, the inspection department, as the county's grass-roots official office in rural market towns, has been structured into a national rural governance system and played its due role in the grass-roots governance process in the Qing Dynasty.

Second, the rural autonomy of Nanjing National Government

After the establishment of any political power, the first task is to consolidate and expand its social foundation. In China, a country with small-scale peasant production, it is especially necessary to integrate the relationship between the state and rural society. The Nanjing National Government, established in the bloody battle, experienced different choices in adjusting and handling the relationship between the state and rural society.

(A) the government established the initial district and village (township) neighborhood committee system.

After the establishment of Nanjing National Government, in order to establish the legitimacy of its own rule, it never forgot to pretend to be the successor of Sun Yat-sen's career, and soon raised the banner of local autonomy marked by "the legacy of the Prime Minister". 1928 In September, the Nanjing National Government promulgated the County Organization Law, which promoted the rural autonomy system throughout the country based on rural governance in Shanxi. It is stipulated that the four-level system of district, village, village and neighborhood Committee shall be implemented below the county level, that is, there is a district under the county, a village under the district, a village under the village and a neighborhood in the village. Under normal circumstances, five households are neighbors, five neighbors are blocks, four blocks are villages, and natural villages with less than four blocks (natural villages) should be co-edited as villages and twenty villages as districts; /kloc-the market with more than 0/00 households is a village, and the market with less than 0/00 households is a village. However, due to local customs or geographical conditions, although there are less than 100 households, there are people in every village. 1929, after reviewing the problems existing in the implementation of rural autonomy, the Nanjing National Government re-promulgated the Law on the Implementation of Rural Autonomy and the Provisional Rules for the Election of Villages Adjacent to Towns as amendments and supplements to the County Organization Law, such as changing the name of a village (Li) to a township (town). At this point, the Nanjing National Government initially completed the political design of building a rural autonomy system within the framework of the administrative system of neighboring villages (townships). Its basic operation is as follows:

Lvhe Neighborhood Council elected the leader of Lvhe Neighborhood Council, which was convened by the leader of Lvhe Neighborhood Council. Villages and villages set up villagers' congresses, village offices, village offices, village supervisory committees and village supervisory committees [1929]. Since the name of the village was changed to township (town), the original village title was changed to township (town) post accordingly. As far as the structure and function of the village (town) neighborhood system in this period are concerned, the structure of the village (town) neighborhood system is the most complete, and the functional provisions are the most clear and specific. For example:

1. As the legislature, the township (town) people's congress has the following powers: to elect and recall the township (town) leaders and other staff; To formulate or amend the articles of autonomy; Decide on separate regulations and budgets at the same level; Discuss the matters that should be discussed by the township (town) office and the matters discussed by neighboring organizations and citizens.

2. The township (town) office is the executive organ, with township (town) length 1 name and deputy township (town) length 1 name. The township (town) office shall perform its duties within the scope of existing laws, regulations on regional autonomy and resolutions of the township (town) people's congress. Such as: the construction and maintenance of household registration, land survey and registration, roads and bridges and other public facilities; Implementing cultural public welfare undertakings such as education and social assistance; Self-government conventions and the preparation of budgets and final accounts.

3. As a supervisory organ, the township (town) supervisory committee shall investigate the accounts and payment matters of the township (town) office at any time, and have the power and responsibility to report to the district office for correction if it finds any irregularities in the financial revenue and expenditure of the township (town).

4. The mediation committee of the township (town) office is the mediation organ for civil and criminal disputes revoked by the township (town) according to law, and is elected by the township (town) people's congress.

(B) "Communist suppression" period, the local Ministry of Baojia system

193 1 year, when the Nanjing National Government carried out a military "encirclement and suppression" of the Red Army of Workers and Peasants in the Central Soviet Area, Chiang Kai-shek personally went to Jiangxi to supervise the war. In order to review the reasons for the failure of the "encirclement and suppression" campaign, the Party Committee affiliated to the "General Command against Bandits" was appointed to set up the local self-defense department, study the Baojia system, draft laws and regulations, and take the lead in piloting it in Jiangxi. The following year, the "Anti-bandits General Command" promulgated the Regulations on Compiling and Checking Garbo Accounts in Anti-bandits Districts and Counties, which stipulated that ten households were the first, ten households were the first and the first was the second. At the same time, the Nanjing National Government promulgated the Regulations on the Organization of Anti-Banditry District and County Offices and the Outline of the Measures for the Establishment of Anti-Banditry Provincial and County Offices, and implemented the district office system in anti-banditry areas. From 1934 to 12, the Executive Yuan, under the orders of the Central Political Committee of the Kuomintang, generally implemented the Baojia system in all provinces. As a result, the Baojia system was extended from Jiangxi, Henan, Hubei and other provinces to the whole country. The implementation of the Bao-Jia system in the regional department has caused structural changes in the township system in the "anti-bandits" areas, and a new pattern of one county, one district, one joint insurance, one insurance and one armor has emerged.

The basic structure of the regional departmental guarantee system is based on households, 10 households, 10 households, 1 township (town) for five or more guarantees and 1 township (town) for more than five guarantees. The compilation of Garbo basically follows the decimal principle and adopts flexible methods under special circumstances. For example, there should be no less than six and no more than fifteen. Set a length. The person in charge of the insurance company, the director of the insurance company, the head of the township (town) and the district head. Section chief a, section chief Bao, and even the director Bao have offices. Township (town) set up township (town) offices and district departments. Chang Bao, like the township (town) mayor, is also the captain of the national security militia and the principal of the national security national school, which is the "trinity" of administration, army and culture. The Garbo organization in the regional department is very picky about the candidates for its position, and its qualifications and class boundaries are extremely strict.

The Bao-jia system of the regional department was first implemented in Jiangxi, the frontier of the national government's anti-communism, with a strong anti-communism color. Strengthening grass-roots rule and stabilizing social order are the direct reasons for its emergence. Therefore, the most stringent regulation of the Baojia system in the regional department is the joint guarantee method. The so-called joint guarantee means that all households jointly guarantee, and public equipment guarantees each other not to do illegal things; Sitting together is a "bandit" in the knot, and other residents will report it. If you don't report it, every household in the party will be guilty if they sit together. ①

(C) the district and township Baojia system after the implementation of the new county system

1939 In September, Nanjing National Government promulgated the Outline of County-level Organization, and implemented the new county system. 194 1 in August, the regulations on township (town) organization was promulgated. The most obvious political intention of the new county system is to make the Baojia system interact with the grass-roots self-government system and realize the full integration of the two sets of governance systems. The administrative system is divided into four levels (actually three levels, at this time, the regional department is actually the agency of the county government). Community design department, which consists of construction Committee and police station; The township (town) has a public opinion organization-the township (town) people's congress, the executive organization-the township (town) office, and the deliberation organization-the township (town) affairs meeting; Conference of Guarantors and Protectors; Parents' meeting Garbo is still based on decimal numbers, but it also adopts a flexible method in special circumstances. For example, there should be no less than six and no more than fifteen. Chang Bao, like the township (town) mayor, is also the captain of the national security militia and the principal of the national security national school, which is the "trinity" of administration, army and culture. According to the statistics of the Ministry of Interior of Nanjing National Government, by June of 1947, there were 43 1870 in China, among which there were 4,997,345 in A ...

It should be pointed out that although the Baojia system after the implementation of the new county system did not fully meet the political expectations of the Nanjing National Government, that is, it completely realized the integration of Baojia system and rural autonomy system, it did show a different situation from the Baojia system of the regional department in system design and actual operation.

1. The Baojia system in the new county system overcame the disadvantages of the chaotic hierarchy and unclear powers and responsibilities of the Baojia system in the regional departments. It not only played its due role in organizing and mobilizing people to build water conservancy projects, rectifying traffic, preventing disasters, persuading agriculture, industry and commerce, but also played a positive role in integrating war resources in the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression period. This is the main reason why the Baojia system of the new county system can be widely implemented in the whole country, including the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia border region.