What is the pseudo-universal effect in social psychology?

What is the pseudo-universality effect in social psychology? False universality effect: In terms of morality, when people behave badly, people will overestimate the universality of their views and positions.

In order to further improve our self-image, we tend to show such a strange tendency: overestimate or underestimate others and think and act like us. In terms of views, we overestimate others' approval of our views to support our position, which is called pseudo-universality.

In terms of views, we always overestimate the approval of others to support our position. This phenomenon is called false consensus effect, also known as false universality effect.

In order to further improve our self-image, we tend to show such a strange tendency: overestimate or underestimate others and think and act like us.

For example, when a person lies to others, he begins to feel that others are dishonest (Sagarin &; others

, 1998)。 He will feel that other people's behaviors and thoughts are the same as his: "I lied, but did others do the same?"

Is social psychology difficult? Psychology is a science that studies human psychological phenomena, psychological functions and behaviors. It is not only a theoretical discipline, but also an applied discipline. Including basic psychology and applied psychology.

Psychological research involves many fields such as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, interpersonal relationship and so on, and it is also related to many fields of daily life-family, education, health and so on. On the one hand, psychology tries to explain the basic behavior and psychological function of individuals with brain operation, and at the same time, psychology also tries to explain the role of individual psychological function in social behavior and social motivation; At the same time, it is also related to neuroscience, medicine, biology and other sciences, because the physiological functions discussed in these sciences will affect the mind of individuals.

The definition of psychology is: the science that studies behavior and psychological processes and the influence of biological physiology, psychological state and external environment on them.

Psychology is divided into five sub-fields, namely neuroscience, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, social psychology and clinical psychology.

Simply put, neuroscience studies people's psychology by observing their brain reactions; Developmental psychology is a subject that studies how human beings grow, develop and learn. Cognitive psychology is to study psychology through computer methods, that is, to compare psychology to a computer to see how human beings play games, distinguish languages and identify objects. Social psychology is the study of human group behavior and how to communicate with people; Clinical psychology mainly studies mental health and mental illness. Psychology is mainly a course to help people's mental health.

When did social psychology come into being? 1908, British psychologist McDougall William and American sociologist Ross published monographs on social psychology respectively. This indicates that social psychology has become an independent discipline.

This is the unified view of domestic psychology textbooks, and this view is still relatively recognized.

What is social psychology? Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the social psychological phenomena of individuals and groups.

The social psychological phenomenon of individuals refers to their thoughts, feelings and behaviors restricted by others and groups, such as interpersonal perception, interpersonal attraction and obedience. Group social psychological phenomenon refers to the unique psychological characteristics of the group itself, such as group cohesion and group decision-making.

Social psychology is an interdisciplinary subject between psychology and sociology, which is influenced by the two disciplines.

Early social psychology paid attention to the psychological phenomena of groups and masses; At the beginning of the twentieth century, the study of attitude became the center; After the emergence of experimental social psychology, the research of social promotion has become the center; Later, group process, persuasion, obedience, cognitive dissonance and attribution became the research center of a certain period.

The United States is the most influential country in the study of social psychology, and its research topics often affect other countries.

Social psychology does not seem to take the 1970s as the dividing point, and its development has three stages:

First, the stage of social philosophy (gestation stage)-from ancient Greece to the middle of19th century.

Second, the stage of social empiricism (initial stage)-1from the middle of the 9th century to the 1920s.

Third, the stage of social analysis (development stage)-from 1930s to present.

So if you want to answer your question, the 1970s should be the stage of social analysis.

China's social psychology also has three stages:

Before 1949: initial development stage.

1949 ——1980: Stagnation stage

After 1980: a new initial stage.

I hope I can help you!

The employment development of social psychology in China is relatively backward. After coming out, they usually open a small private clinic or something.

Foreign countries, especially the United States, attach great importance to psychotherapy. For example, American companies usually ask psychologists for help when recruiting and writing test questions. When doing market research, experts in this field will also participate. ...

Of course, if it is educational psychology, it is definitely right to be a teacher after coming out.

Special topics in social psychology 1. According to the principle of social psychology, what do you think of the interpersonal relationship in your unit? What should be done to improve interpersonal relationships, so as to improve job performance and employee satisfaction? Please give an example.

2. In the chapter of cognitive dissonance, what kind of research normalization convinces you most? Why? Give an example of cognitive dissonance of yourself or others around you and give some suggestions. How do you think you or others should correct the disharmony in this particular situation?

Attribution Theory of social psychology A theory of social psychology in which the perceiver infers and explains the reasons for others' and their own behaviors. Austrian social psychologist F. Hyde put forward attribution theory for the first time in Interpersonal Psychology published by 1958. Later, some scholars put forward some new theories on this basis. Attribution research became the central topic of American social psychology in 1970s.

Hyde is a gestalt psychologist, a close friend of Lei Wen, and deeply influenced by other pioneers of Gestalt school. He showed great interest in A. Meinong's phenomenological viewpoint and B. F. Skinner's * * * response (S-R) psychology. Hyde attaches importance to the study of interpersonal perception. After his two friends quarreled, they told him what happened, but the statements were quite different, which aroused his interest in studying interpersonal perception and attribution.

Hyde believes that the essence of human perception research is to examine the way ordinary people deal with information about others and themselves. The observer is interested in why the observed object behaves like that. Like a "naive psychologist", he seeks the causal explanation of behavior. In Hyde's view, the cause of behavior is either the environment or the individual. If the cause of the behavior lies in the environment, such as outsiders, rewards and punishments, luck, difficulty of work and other external factors, the actor is irresponsible for his own behavior; If the reason of behavior lies in the individual, such as personality, motivation, emotion, attitude, ability, emotion, effort, etc. Actors should be responsible for their actions. Hyde summed up the attribution explanation that people usually make with two principles. (1)*** variational principle. Many times, a reason is always associated with a result. Without this reason, the result will not happen. (2) Exclusion principle. If situational reasons are enough to cause behavior, personal attribution is excluded, and vice versa. Hyde's external-internal attribution theory became the basis of later attribution research. He believes that the role of interpersonal perception in interpersonal communication is to enable observers to predict and control the behavior of others.

In 1965, E.E. Jones and K.E. Davis put forward the attribution theory of corresponding reasoning, and developed the attribution theory on the basis of Hyde's exclusion principle. The theory holds that people should infer the intention and motivation of behavior from the behavior and its results when making personal attribution. The behavior intention and motivation of extrapolation correspond to the observed behavior and its results, that is, the corresponding inference or attribution-effect coupling. The greater the difference between the value of attribution judgment and the value judgment held by ordinary people, the greater the accuracy of corresponding inference. There are three main factors that affect the corresponding inference: (1) freedom of choice. If we know that a person's actions are discretionary and he chooses a specific way from many possible ways, we tend to think that this behavior corresponds to some subjective intention. If it is not a free choice, it is difficult to make corresponding inferences. (2) Non-* * has the same effect. When there are many possible options, one scheme has different characteristics from others. If the actor chooses this action plan, its non-equivalent effect can allow us to infer the intention of traveling as a person. (3) social expectations. It is difficult for us to infer a person's true attitude when he shows actions that conform to social expectations or values. If a person's behavior does not meet social expectations and deviates from social values, we can think that his behavior and attitude are corresponding.

H.H. Kelly's three-dimensional attribution theory pushes the attribution research initiated by Hyde to * * *. 1967, Kelly published "Attribution Theory of Social Psychology", which holds that the attribution process is "the attribution of individuals to their world-the attribution of goals, tendencies and internal characteristics", and describes this process with a cubic model. Kelly put forward some attribution principles: * * analysis, causality diagram, discount principle, expansion principle, complex inevitable reason and compensation reason. Like Heidegger, he also used J. Mill's difference method. In his view, three different explanations can be used to explain the cause of the behavior: (1) attributed to the person who engaged in the behavior; (2) the object attributed to the actor, that is, the object perceived by the actor; (3) Due to the environment in which the behavior occurs.

Three explanations are possible, but to find out the real reason, we must use three kinds of information: (1) consistency. In this case, whether the behavior of the actor is consistent with the behavior of others. (2) consistency. Whether this behavior occurred at other times and other occasions. (3) specificity. Do actors react to other objects in the same way? Kelly concluded that if the consistency is low, the consistency is high and the specificity is low, it should be blamed on the actor; If the consistency, consistency and specificity are high, it should be attributed to the object; If the consistency is low, the consistency is low and the specificity is high, it should be attributed to the environment. Kelly's three-dimensional theory is an idealized attribution model, and people often cannot get all the information needed by this model. Therefore, Kelly introduced the concept of causal schema. People form a certain viewpoint, that is, schema, in their life experience to explain specific behaviors. American scholar L.A. MacArthur (1972) made a systematic study on attribution based on Kelly's three-dimensional theory, and verified the feasibility of Kelly's theory.

At the end of 1970s, the attribution theory had a new development, which was manifested in the increase of clues used in attribution and the attempt to combine Gestalt thought with reinforcement theory.

B wiener and his colleagues developed Hyde's attribution theory in 1972 and combined it with J.W. Atkinson's achievement motivation theory. Weiner believes that internal and external causes are only one aspect of attribution judgment, and another aspect should be added, that is, the temporary-stable aspect. It is very important in forming expectations and predicting future success or failure. Weiner believes that internal stability factors include ability, companionship and physical characteristics; Internal temporary factors include effort, emotion and fatigue; External stability factors include task difficulty and environmental obstacles; External temporary factors include luck and opportunity. Among them, ability, hard work, luck and task difficulty are the main factors for personal analysis. For example, if I believe that A's excellent work is caused by stable factors such as his strong ability or easy task, then we can expect that he will do well if he is given the same task in the future. If we think that his success is caused by temporary factors such as his good mood or good opportunities, then we won't expect him to do well in the future. Generally speaking, the reason for pursuing success comes down to one's strong ability, and the reason for failure comes down to one's not working hard enough, thinking that as long as one works hard, one will always finish the work. People who avoid failure often attribute their success to external reasons such as good luck and easy task, and their failure to their own incompetence. Weiner's attribution theory has been widely used in school education and ability training.

L.Y. abram Sen and his colleagues further developed Weiner's theory in 1978. On the basis of M. Seyrig Mann's research on learned helplessness, they supplemented the attribution of failure and put forward the third aspect, that is, the universal-special aspect. For example, if a student has learned helplessness in mathematics learning, we can predict that other courses will not learn well, resulting in learned helplessness; If it belongs to a special aspect, we will predict that he will only give up his efforts to learn mathematics and will not learn other courses.

All the above attribution theories have inherited the tradition of Hyde's "naive psychologist", treating people as rational and making causal analysis in attribution. In fact, people are not always rational when attributing. Kahneman and Thibaugh further developed the attribution theory from different angles.

Kahneman and A. Toviski regard people as "cognitive economists" rather than "naive psychologists" and think that people take shortcuts in attribution. Kahneman and Twisky proposed that people often use two heuristic methods for reasoning and judgment in daily life: (1) representative heuristic method. People often choose representative examples when reasoning and judging. (2) Heuristic method of usability. People often use information that is easy to enter the mind to make inferences and judgments. It can explain the difference in attribution between observers and actors. For actors, the situation is prominent and easy to remember, so it tends to be attributed to the situation; For observers, it is the actors who are prominent and tend to make personal attribution.

Thibaugh and Kelly borrowed the reward-reward concept of reinforcement theory in International Relations: Interdependence Theory published in 1978, and put forward the "effective model theory" from the perspective of dual relationship interaction. They think he is the result of the interaction of double interpersonal relationships. Pay refers to the factors that inhibit and hinder individuals from continuing their activities, and return refers to the factors that cause individuals to be happy, satisfied and rewarded. Actors can repeat socially meaningful interactions if they are properly strengthened. There are four stages in the emergence of interactive prosperity, and the time division is: (1) premise. Two people include the environment and the dual relationship. (2) a certain model. General behavior model determined by environment and dual relationship. (3) Effective model. Actors transform their behavior patterns according to their own internal factors, such as value orientation, demand, strength, skills, personality, etc., and produce effective patterns. (4) behavior. The internal cause of individual action is embodied in "transformation". Thibaugh and Kelly combine attribution with behavior reinforcement theory, and successfully reveal the law that the interdependence of members in dual relationships affects social communication. Their research reflects the future development direction of attribution theory research.

D.J. Bem put forward the self-perception theory of interpersonal relationship from the perspective of radical behaviorist. His main thesis is an experimental analysis of beliefs and attitudes from 65438 to 0964. Bem believes that personal feelings, attitudes, qualities and abilities are often clear and vague to him. One must infer them from his own obvious behaviors and his understanding of the surrounding environmental forces. The statement of one person's beliefs and attitudes is basically the same as that of another external observer in function. The process of self-attribution and the materials used are essentially the same as those used by others. It can be seen that Bem's attribution theory is a supplement to previous theories. In this way, the attribution theory of social perception is more comprehensive and complete. A series of experiments by schacter-Singer and others have proved that Bem's self-perception theory is extremely successful in attributing his own emotions and attitudes.

Examples are ...

When will you take the social psychology exam? The first part is an overview.

Unit 1 Overview

Knowledge point: the definition of social psychology

1. The definition of psychology (memory)

2. The definition of sociology (memory)

3. Definition between psychology and sociology: Social psychology should pay attention to social relations, social situations, individual psychological reactions and individual social behaviors (understanding).

Lei Wen put forward the famous formula: b = f (p, e)b- behavior; P- individuals; E- personal situation; F function relation

The research scope of social psychology

1. Micro-individual level

2. Meso-group level

3. Social dimension of macro vision

Unit 2 A Brief History of Social Psychology

American scholar Holland's "Three-stage Theory" (Recitation)

Philosophical speculation stage, experience description stage and empirical analysis stage.

Research methods of social psychology

Knowledge points: principles to be followed in social psychology research (memory)

1. Principle of objectivity

2. System principle

3. The principle of combining morality with practice

Key points: ethical principles (memory)

Knowledge point: the main method of social psychology research

1. Observation (application) (understanding)

2. Investigation method (application) (application)

3. Archives research methods

4. Experimental method

Key points: Target design principle (memory)

Purposeful principle, comprehensive principle, explicit principle and non-implied principle.

Unit 4 The Main Theories of Social Psychology

Knowledge point: the main theory of social psychology

1. Social learning theory

2. Social exchange theory

3. Symbolic interaction theory

4. Social cognitive theory and field theory

5. Psychoanalytic theory

Emphasis: social learning theory (understanding) and social behavior (memory)

Emphasis: social exchange theory: (memorization), symbolic interaction theory (memorization), social cognitive theory and field theory: (memorization)

Psychoanalysis: (Memory)

Tension and conflict (understanding):

Three levels: id, ego and superego (memory)

Section 2 Socialization and Self

Unit 1 Socialization

Knowledge points: the concept of socialization (memorization), re-socialization (memorization), socialized content (memorization) and socialized conditions (memorization).

Knowledge point: the carrier of socialization (memory)

Knowledge points: political socialization

Knowledge Point: Moral Socialization (Understanding)

Unit 2 Social Role and Its Theory

Knowledge point: gender role socialization (back)

Knowledge points: language socialization (memorization)

Knowledge point: the concept of social role (memory)

Knowledge points: classification of social roles

Knowledge points: role-playing process (memory)

Role Expectation, Role Understanding and Role Practice

Knowledge point: role imbalance (understanding)

Unit 3 Self, Identity and Self-esteem

Knowledge point: self

1. The concept of self;

2. The structure of self;

3. The role of self-concept;

4. The formation and development of self-concept;

5. Measurement of self-concept;

The concept of self (memory) mirrors me (understanding)

Self-structure (memory)

Material self, psychological self, social self, ideal self and reflective self.

Knowledge points: identity, characteristics of identity (memorization)

Objectivity, subjectivity, diversity, stability and contract

Knowledge points: self-esteem, the concept of self-esteem (memory) and the factors that affect self-esteem (memory)

Section 3 Social Cognition and Attribution

Unit 1 Social Cognition

Knowledge points: basic concepts (memory)

Knowledge point: the reason of social perception

Knowledge Points: Subjective Factors Affecting Social Perception

Emphasis: Schema (memory) and its function.

Unit 2 Formation and Trimming of Stamp

Knowledge point: the concept of impression and its formation

Knowledge point: the effect of impression formation

Key points: the first cause effect and recency effect (memorization), halo effect (memorization), engraving impression and stereotype (memorization).

Information integration mode in impression formation

1. addition mode

2. Average mode

3. Weighted average mode

Knowledge points: impression decoration (understanding)

Unit 3 Attribution

Knowledge points: attribution (understanding), classification of behavior reasons (memorization) and control point theory (memorization and understanding)

Attribution principle (memory), invariance principle (memory), discount principle (memory) and covariant principle (memory)

Attribution theory, also known as three-dimensional theory, affects the factors of attribution.

The fourth quarter social motivation

Unit 1 Overview

Knowledge points: the concept of social motivation (memorizing) (understanding), the process of motivation (memorizing), the role of motivation, and the classification of motivation.

The Relationship between Motivation Intensity and Activity Efficiency (Memory)

Unit 2 Social Motivation and Social Behavior

Knowledge points: affinity motivation (understanding), affinity from attachment (memory), factors affecting affinity (memory), achievement motivation (understanding).

The level of ambition (comprehension) and the problems that should be paid attention to in cultivating achievement motivation (memorization)

Composition (understanding) and cause (memory) of infringement.

Key points: frustration attack theory (memory)

Knowledge points: altruism, altruism (understanding)

Section 5 Attitude

Unit 1 Attitude Formation

Knowledge points: concept (understanding), component (memory, understanding), function and dimension of attitude.

The formation of attitude (memory) American scholar Celmen proposed that the formation of attitude includes three stages: obedience-identification-internalization (memory).

Unit 2 Change of Attitude

Knowledge points: Attitude change model (recitation),

Attitude change theory

(A) Hyde's theory of balance

(B) cognitive dissonance theory

Social exchange theory (memory)

Unit 3 Attitude Measurement

Section 6 interpersonal relationship

Unit 1 Types of interpersonal relationships

Knowledge point: the concept of interpersonal relationship (memory and understanding)

Personality, directness and emotionality

Knowledge points: the establishment and development of interpersonal relationships (memory)

(A) the establishment and development stage

The establishment and development of interpersonal relationship has gone through four stages: orientation, exploration, emotional communication and stable communication.

(B) the principle of interpersonal relationship

1. Reciprocity principle

2. The principle of interchangeability

3. Self-value protection principle

Knowledge points: interpersonal relationship types

Knowledge points: three-dimensional theory of interpersonal relationship (memory and understanding)

1. Inclusive demand

Control demand

3. Emotional needs

Unit 2 Interpersonal attraction

Knowledge point: the concept of interpersonal attraction (understanding)

Factors affecting liking (memory)

Similarity, complementarity, attraction, personality, familiarity and proximity.

Unit 3 Interpersonal Interaction

Knowledge point: the concept of interpersonal interaction

Knowledge points: forms of interpersonal interaction: cooperation and competition

Key points: cooperation and its basic conditions (understanding)

Interdependence Theory of Goals and Means (Memory)

Section 7 Interpersonal communication

Unit 1 Structure and Function of Communication

Knowledge point: the concept of communication (understanding)

Knowledge point: the structure of communication (memory)

Knowledge points: the role of communication

Knowledge points: the classification of interpersonal communication

Knowledge points: communication network (memorization)

Knowledge points: formal communication network (memorization)

Chain type, wheel type, round type, full channel type and Y type.

Knowledge point: informal communication network

Unit 2 Body Language Communication

Knowledge points: body language (understanding), eyes and facial expressions (memory), body movements and touches, posture, interpersonal distance (memory, understanding).

Section 8 Social Impact

Unit 1 compliance

Knowledge points: the concept of conformity (memory and understanding), the role of conformity, the reasons for conformity behavior (memory), and the factors that affect conformity.

Unit 2 Social Promotion and Social Idleness

Knowledge points: the concept of social promotion (understanding) and the concept of social wandering (understanding).

Strengthening Leading Reaction —— Theoretical Explanation of Social Promotion and Inertia

Imitation, Hint and Social Infection

Knowledge points: imitation, the concept of imitation (memory, understanding), suggestion, the concept of suggestion (memory, understanding)

Social infection and the concept of social infection (memory and understanding)

Characteristics of social infection (memory, understanding)

Section 9 Love, Marriage and Family

Unit 1 Love

Knowledge points: the concept of love (understanding), the development stage of love (memorizing)

Social exchange theorists have roughly experienced four stages of love development.

Sampling and evaluation, reciprocity, commitment and institutionalization

Knowledge points: the form of love, love triangle.

Unit 2 Marriage

Knowledge points: the concept of marriage (understanding) and the type of relationship between husband and wife.

Unit 3 Divorce

Knowledge points: marital psychological conflict (memory) and divorce reasons (memory)

Unit 4 Family

Knowledge points: the concept of family, the structure and function of family.

The function of the family (memory)

Economic function, sexual function, reproductive function, raising and supporting function.

Educational function, emotional communication function, leisure and entertainment function.

Knowledge points: family life cycle (recitation)