A liar of Dutch immigrants

Oliver cromwell (1599- 1658) was the leader, politician and strategist of the British bourgeois revolution in the 7th century.

Cromwell was born into a middle-class aristocratic family in Huntington County. When he was young, he studied in a famous Puritan college in Cambridge and was influenced by Puritan thought. 1628 was elected to parliament. Moved to cambridgeshire in the 1930s. He once helped local farmers to oppose the behavior of aristocratic landlords draining swamps against farmers' interests, so he was quite popular in eastern counties. 1640 As a representative of Cambridgeshire, he was elected as a "short-term parliament" and a "long-term parliament" successively. In the long-term parliament, stand with the members who resolutely oppose the Wang Party. Participate in the formulation of documents such as the Great Protest. 1642, when the British Civil War began, he stood in the revolutionary camp of the Congress and made repeated military exploits with his "warrior". 1645, Congress authorized Cromwell to reorganize the army, and he formed a "new model army" based on fighters. He commanded the army and defeated the royalist army. 1649, King Charles I was executed and the Republic was proclaimed. Cromwell monopolized the power and became the actual military dictator. He suppressed the excavation movement and sent troops to Ireland. 1653, he dissolved parliament and became "lord protector". However, the domestic economic situation continued to deteriorate, class contradictions became increasingly acute, and Cromwell never stabilized the situation. 1658 died of illness.

George Washington 1732 was born in wakefield Manor, Virginia, USA. He is the son of a rich planter and inherited a large fortune at the age of 20. From 1753 to 1758, Washington served in the army and actively participated in the war between the French and Indians, thus gaining military experience and prestige; 1758 After returning to Virginia after disarmament, he soon married Martha Dandelion custis, a rich widow with four children (he had no biological children).

In the next fifteen years, Washington managed his own property and showed extraordinary talent. When he was elected as the representative of Virginia to attend the first continental congress in 1774, he had become one of the richest people in American colonies. Washington was not a pioneer in advocating independence, but he was unanimously elected to command the mainland forces at the Second Continental Congress in June 1775 (he was the representative). He is famous for his rich military experience and wealth. He is handsome, physically strong (6 feet 2 hours) and has excellent command ability. In particular, his indomitable character makes him a natural candidate for commander in chief. During the whole war, he served faithfully, took nothing, was honest and clean, and was a model.

Washington began to command the mainland army in June 1775, and his most significant contribution was made during the expiration of his second term in March 1797. 1799 12 in Mount Wayne, Virginia, he died at home.

First of all, he was a successful military leader in the American War of Independence. But in fact, he is by no means a military genius, and of course he will never be as good as generals like Alexander and Caesar. At least half of his success is due to the unexpected incompetence of British generals and the other half is due to his own talent. But it should be remembered that several other American generals were defeated. Although there were several minor failures, Washington finally won the war.

Secondly, Washington is the chairman of the Constitutional Convention. Although his thoughts did not play an important role in the formation of the American Constitution, his supporters and his reputation played an important role in the ratification of the Constitution by the states. At that time, there was a powerful force against the new constitution. If it weren't for Washington's influence, it would be hard to say that this constitution could be implemented.

Third, Washington was the first president of the United States. The United States is lucky to have a man with both ability and political integrity like Washington as its first president. Looking at the history of South American and African countries, we can see that even a new country with a democratic constitution from the beginning can easily degenerate into a military dictatorship. Washington is a firm leader. He maintained the unity of the country, but he has no ambition to be in power forever. He doesn't want to be king or dictator. He set a precedent for voluntarily surrendering power-a precedent that the United States still pursues today.

Compared with other American leaders at that time, such as Thomas Jefferson, james madison and alexander hamilton, George Washington lacked innovative spirit and profound thoughts. But he is much more important than all these talented people. No matter in war or in peace, he plays a vital role in administrative leadership. Without him, no political movement will achieve its goal. Madison made great contributions to the formation of the United States, and Washington's contribution was almost indispensable.

George Washington's position in this volume largely depends on how people realize the historical significance he brought to the United States. Naturally, it is difficult to ask an American today to make a fair evaluation of that historical significance.

Although the military strength and political influence of the United States in the middle of the twentieth century even surpassed that of the Roman Empire in its heyday, its regime may not last as long as that of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, it seems obvious that several technological achievements made by the United States will be considered important by other countries in the future. For example, the invention of the airplane and the human landing on the moon represent the achievements that generations have dreamed of; It is hard to imagine that the invention of nuclear weapons will be regarded as an insignificant achievement in the future.

Since George Washington can be compared with Augustus Caesar of Rome in general, it seems reasonable to rank him very close to Augustus in this book. If Washington ranks a little lower, it is mainly because he is much shorter than Augustus. Many other people, such as Thomas Jefferson and james madison, also played an important role in the formation of the United States. But Washington ranks higher than Alexander the Great and Napoleon because his contribution is more indelible than theirs. Washington, the founder of the United States of America

As we all know, the capital of the United States is Washington, which is located on the Potomac River on the Atlantic coast. In fact, there was no such city in the United States before 1800. It was specially established by the American people to commemorate George Washington, the father of the American nation, from which we can see how lofty he is in the eyes of the American people.

On February 22nd, George Washington was born into a planter's family in Virginia. He lost his father when he was a child and only inherited a small amount of land and 10 slaves. /kloc-went to the west as a land surveyor at the age of 0/6, and later led the land sales in the Ohio Valley. Through his own efforts, Washington became a famous local planter.

At that time, Britain and France fought a protracted war for the North American colonies. In order to defeat France, Britain tried its best to win the support of the big plantation owners in North America. 1754, the governor of Virginia promised to give 200,000 acres of land to the rich who participated in the anti-French war. Washington took an active part in Britain's war against France, commanded Virginia local armed forces to fight bravely and made great achievements repeatedly, and assisted the British army to drive the French army out of North America. However, after the war, Britain immediately turned its face and declared that the western land was privately owned by the royal family and was not allowed to be reclaimed. This ban caused Washington to lose more than 30,000 acres of land at once, and since then, he has become a staunch opponent of British colonial policy.

On April 1775 and 19, the people of Boston fired the first shot against British colonial rule in Lexington, and the people of North America responded in succession, and the vigorous American War of Independence broke out.

1June 775 13 The British colonies in North America held a "Continental Congress" in Philadelphia, and Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. At this time, the Boston Rebels were fighting fiercely with the British. Washington immediately set off on horseback and arrived in Boston on July 3. He personally went to the front to direct the battle, which dealt a heavy blow to the British army.

In the early days of the war, American troops fought very hard. Most of them are farmers recruited temporarily, dressed in rags, unarmed and without formal military training. They are nothing like an army. On the other hand, the logistics supply of the US military is extremely difficult. Soldiers often don't have enough food and warm clothes. Sometimes they can't eat bread for five or six days in a row, so they have to eat horse food. In the cold winter, many soldiers have to March barefoot.

On the contrary, their opponents, the British, are well-equipped, well-trained and well-supplied. As a result, the U.S. military retreated repeatedly, and new york and other fortresses fell one after another. By September 1777, even the capital Philadelphia was occupied by the British, and some weak-willed generals led their troops to surrender to the British.

Under the extremely severe situation, Washington has always been loyal to the independent cause of the North American people and has never wavered. With extraordinary talent, he organized the American army, which was originally loose and lacked organizational discipline and unified command, grew up in the battle and gradually established a strong regular army. He encouraged American soldiers and called on them to fight for freedom, pointing out: Americans are either free or slaves; Whether our land should be owned by ourselves or plundered or destroyed; Two roads, one is brave resistance and the other is taming, both of which are in front of the soldiers of the independent army.

He tried to unite the States to fight together. 1777 10, the American army defeated the British army in Sarato, thus reversing the whole situation of the War of Independence. At the same time, in order to isolate Britain, the United States launched diplomatic activities in various ways to win assistance from France and other countries. 1in June 778, French warships entered the United States, and the British army was forced to retreat from Philadelphia and turned its main attack direction to the south. 1780, the British army transferred its main force to the southern port city of Yorktown. French and American troops went hand in hand and approached Yorktown. The French army blocked the harbor with the navy, cut off the British sea supply line and cut off the British retreat. Washington led a frontal assault.

178 1 In September, the British commander-in-chief Kang Hua led more than a thousand people to surrender to Washington, and the American War of Independence won the final victory.

After the victory of the War of Independence, Washington returned to Virginia to continue to run his own plantation and enjoy a quiet pastoral life under a green forest full of vines and fig trees. 1787, Washington came out again, presided over the constitutional convention and formulated the world's first bourgeois constitution. 1789 In April, Washington was elected as the first president of the United States.

After eight years as president of the United States, he vowed not to be re-elected and resolutely returned to Mount Vernon to live a civilian life. 1799 12 14, Washington died.

Maximilian Maximilien Francois Marie Isidore de Robespierre? OIS Marie Isidore de Robespierre (1May 6, 758-1July 28, 794) was a French revolutionary, an important leader during the French Revolution and one of the actual heads of the jacobins government.

Early life

Robespierre was born in Alas, Calais, northern France. His father, grandfather and great-grandfather are all local lawyers and are said to be descendants of Irish immigrants. He is the eldest of four children and was born four months after his parents' wedding. When robespierre was 6 years old, his mother died in childbirth, and his father ran away from home and traveled around. He died in Mannheim on 1777, and their children were raised by their grandmother and aunt respectively.

1770, robespierre came to study at King Louis College, where he won a scholarship from a local priest in Arras. His friends at school included Camille Demoulain, who was one of the most important figures in the French Revolution in the future. Robespierre studied hard, got excellent grades in Latin and Greek, and got the nickname "Roman". 1775, King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette passed the college after the enthronement ceremony, and robespierre recited the Latin literature words written by the teacher to the king on behalf of the whole school. 1780 graduated from law school, 178 1 obtained a bachelor's degree in law.

In the summer of the same year, robespierre returned to his hometown. At the end of the year, he was admitted to the alastair court and began to work as a lawyer. At the beginning of 1782, he was appointed as one of the five judges of the bishop's court in arras. He was deeply influenced by Rousseau, and often defended people who were obviously treated unfairly, with high success rate. 1783, Vizer, who lives near arras, caused protests from his neighbors because he installed a lightning rod invented by Franklin. Robespierre successfully defended him with the help of his friend and patron A-J Bersars, and the case once attracted national attention.

Robespierre's life in Arras is relatively calm, and he keeps in touch with some local lawyers and scholars from time to time and participates in local cultural activities. He was accepted as an academician of alastair Academy of Sciences and later elected as the president of alastair Academy of Sciences. During this period, he got to know Joseph Fouché, who will play an important role in the French Revolution, and his future colleague Lazar Cano in the Public Security Committee.

From the Third Level Meeting to the Constitutional Convention

1788, France was facing an economic and political crisis, and people kept calling for a three-level meeting. Robespierre published "Letter to the People of artois-On the Necessity of Reforming the Third-level Meeting in artois" (according to the division at that time, artois belonged to artois County), describing the history of the local third-level meeting since the Middle Ages, strongly criticizing the artois nobles for seizing the power that should belong to the people, exploiting and oppressing ordinary people, and calling for system reform. Louis XVI is still mentioned in the article in respectful language.

After the royal family announced the convening of the third-level meeting, he actively participated in the election and was successfully elected as the third-level representative. He left arras in may 1789. During the period of Versailles, he made a speech and suggested that his parishioners should unite with the third class. When a bishop persuaded the third class to cooperate with the first and second classes on the grounds of famine relief, he spoke and criticized the extravagance of church life. Although his speech was not as charming as that of Mirabaud and other delegates, he quickly improved his speech level, making 276 speeches during the third-level meeting and the Constitutional Convention, ranking 20th among delegates. In his speech, he supported universal suffrage for male citizens, opposed the king's veto power, supported the empowerment of Jews, called for the abolition of slavery and the death penalty, and opposed news censorship, but did not speak against the bill prohibiting workers from forming trade unions and holding strikes. His suggestion was rarely adopted, but it soon won him a high reputation in the whole country and earned him the title of "incorruptible".

His other main activity place at that time was the Jacobin Club. His influence is more obvious here. On March 36, 179 1 was elected as the president of the club, which led Galeries Lafayette to leave angrily. 179 1 June, Louis XVI and members of the royal family attempted to abscond. Robespierre called for the deposing of the king at the Constituent Assembly, but said that he did not support the establishment of a republic. After the Constituent Assembly decided to declare Louis XVI innocent, he initially supported the Deliere Club to hold a protest petition in the training ground, but later persuaded the Jacobin Club to withdraw its support. /kloc-After the training ground tragedy in July, 0/7, the constitutional monarchy headed by Galeries Lafayette completely broke with the jacobins Club, and robespierre became one of the leaders of jacobins.

War and the king's trial

1791On September 3rd, the Constitutional Assembly adopted the Constitution, and the meeting was dissolved on 30th. Due to robespierre's proposal, former members of the Constituent Assembly, including himself, could not participate in the election of the newly established Legislative Assembly. After the Constituent Assembly, I returned to my hometown of Arras and didn't return to Paris until June 1 1. During this period, Austria and Prussia formed the first anti-French alliance, and the cloud of war hung over France. Brissot, one of the leaders of Gironde in the Legislative Assembly, called for punishing the fleeing aristocrats and directly launching an active attack on foreign powers. The king and queen hoped to rely on foreign forces to restore their former kingship, and also actively supported France, showing a tough attitude.

After robespierre returned to Paris, he also supported gironde's militant stance at first, but later he changed his mind and started a fierce debate with brissot for several months from 65438 to early February. In addition to giving a speech at the Jacobin Club, he also founded the Constitutional Guardian to express his views. He declared that he was not opposed to all wars, but pointed out that France was not prepared for war, the people lacked weapons, the army was in the hands of nobles, and the court plotted to overthrow the revolution. The real enemy was actually inside France. He refuted the claim that brissot and others exported revolution to Europe, and pointed out that foreign people would not warmly welcome invaders. He emphasized that war will greatly restrict freedom and democracy and easily lead to military dictatorship.

Although robespierre continued to be supported by the Jacobin Club, his anti-war remarks were unpopular in Paris at that time, and his reputation was once degraded. The French finally declared war on Austria on April 20th. 1792. At the beginning of the war, the French army lost one after another, and the royal family also had a fierce conflict with gironde. At first, robespierre still advocated the maintenance of constitutional monarchy, opposed the realization of * * * and through the uprising, and hoped to strive for democracy through the Legislative Assembly. But in July, he gradually moved closer to the Dillier Club, which was preparing for the uprising, and finally proposed to depose the king again on August 8.

1792, 10 In August, the people of Paris revolted, broke into the palace and overthrew the king. Robespierre did not directly participate in the uprising, and later refused to be the president of the court to try the conspirators. But in the name of the representative of the Paris Commune, he exerted influence on the Legislative Assembly. On September 2nd, after the news of Verdun's siege spread to Paris, the people of Paris, worried about the revenge of royalists and priests who refused to take the oath in prison, broke into the prison and lynched 1000 prisoners, known as the September Massacre in history. Robespierre didn't seem to instigate or try to stop the massacre, but in the meantime, he accused brissot of colluding with the royal family. Brissot survived under the protection of Dandong and Petion.

On September 2 1 of the same year, France established a new National Association and announced the establishment of the Republic of China the next day. Robespierre entered the National Assembly as the candidate with the most votes among the Parisian delegates. In February 65438, the king was interrogated. He spoke 1 1 times and strongly demanded the execution of King Louis XVI.

Jacobin dictatorship

1793 In May, at the proposal of robespierre, the National Association passed the Food Price Limit Act, but the National Association began to persecute the revolutionary commune and arrested Mara. On May 26th, he called on the people to revolt and remove gironde people from the National Association. On June 4th, he was elected as the chairman of the new National Association, presided over the adoption of the new constitution, guaranteed citizens' freedom of person, belief, publication, petition and association, right to education and social relief, and stipulated that if the government violated people's rights, people had the right to resist.

13 In July, Mara was assassinated by royalists. On the 26th, the Citizens' Association authorized the Public Security Committee to arrest the suspect. On the 27th, robespierre joined the Public Security Committee, reorganized the revolutionary court, simplified the trial procedure, implemented Jacob's dictatorship, and punished criminals and revolutionary traitors with revolutionary terror policy, which was known as "terror rule" in history. Many innocent people were falsely accused and killed, and thousands of people were guillotined. Among them are the king's relatives and most of the nobles. Some people criticize this policy as "killing nine families" and violating human nature.

On the one hand, the newly formed revolutionary army of the Public Security Committee put down civil strife, on the other hand, it defeated foreign intervention troops and successively repelled the allied forces of Prussia, Austria, Britain and the Netherlands. 1794 In February, the "Yue Feng Law Order" was promulgated, and the property of the "public enemy" was confiscated and distributed to patriots. The Public Security Committee kept a balance between the Ebel faction who advocated radical policies and demanded the expansion of terror and the Dandong faction who advocated tolerance and relaxation of repression, and sent the leaders of the two factions to the guillotine.

While attacking the Catholic Church, robespierre also opposed the non-Christianization movement and doubted the motives of atheists. 1On May 7, 794, he submitted the "Supreme Dominant Worship and National Festivals Act" in the National Assembly, which reflected Rousseau's influence. The celebration of Sovereignty Day was held on June 8th, designed and arranged by the painter David. Robespierre, then chairman of the National Association, delivered a speech and burned idols symbolizing atheism and nothingness.

Luna Klein

At the beginning of July, 1794 began to stop participating in the work of the public security Committee. On July 26th, he delivered a four-hour speech in Congress, implying that conspirators and swindlers in Congress and public security committees would be liquidated. On July 27th (hot September), St. Just is going to give a speech at the National Association. Although he criticized the League of Nations, he did not ask for arrest. This is a spirit of compromise. But his speech was rudely interrupted at the beginning, and the National Assembly immediately passed a decree to arrest robespierre and his supporters, but robespierre and others were immediately rescued by the commune. The revolutionary commune mobilized the armed forces, but did not get clear instructions and began to dissolve after midnight. That night, the National Association announced that he was deprived of his citizenship, and the guild guards went to arrest him. He was shot in the chin, and the next afternoon, he was guillotined with St. Just, Kudong and other followers. It's for the hot moon coup.

Evaluation and impact

Robespierre is one of the most controversial figures in the French Revolution. Because all his manuscripts and notes have not been preserved, it has brought great difficulties to the research work, and the evaluation of him often reflects the critics' own ideology.

Some people think that he is too idealistic or rigid and lacks practical ability, but others think that he is good at sizing up the situation and can seize the right moment to take action. Critics call him self-centered, suspicious and unreasonable, while supporters praise him for his integrity, keen eyes and concern for the country and revolution. Some people criticize him for have it both ways and constantly changing his position, but others think that his principles and goals remain unchanged, and he just chooses different means to achieve his goals according to the situation. It is generally believed that he behaved abnormally in the hot months, which caused the panic of the National Association and led to his own failure. Some people speculated that he lost confidence in the revolution at that time, so he took a self-destructive action, while others criticized him for being stupid and incompetent, and deserved it.

Robespierre's role in the reign of terror is the most controversial issue. Critics believe that he is a theorist of terrorist rule, extremely cruel, and his hands are covered with blood, and he should be responsible for the killing of a large number of innocent people during the terrorist period. Some supporters pointed out that Fu Xie, Peyo-Valen and others killed people like hemp, far exceeding robespierre, and thought that he actually played a role in restraining radicals in the security committee. Some contemporaries, including Napoleon, thought that he intended to control terror and punish Fu Xie and others for killing innocent people in hot months, which led to the latter's alliance with the Rightists, but some scholars questioned this. Some supporters believe that it was inevitable for France to implement a terrorist dictatorship at home and abroad at that time, but critics believe that terrorism has set a dangerous precedent, which is not worth the candle.

Robespierre has a far-reaching influence in French and world history./kloc-Many European revolutionaries paid tribute to him in the 9th century. Some critics believe that Jacob's dictatorship is the predecessor of the authoritarian regime from fascism to the * * * production party. Whether there is a lasting relationship between robespierre and fascism is still inconclusive. However, in view of the fact that robespierre was erected shortly after the October Revolution in Russia, it seems that the statement that Bolshevik leaders created the people's democratic dictatorship based on the experience of the French Revolution is not groundless. As the influence of the French Revolution has not been eliminated, it is still far away to make an objective evaluation of robespierre.