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Fish: So fish can live in water, and there are two important characteristics: one is to get food and defend against enemies through the swing of tail and the coordinated swimming of fins, and the other is to breathe in water with gills.

Other aquatic animals:

Coelenterate: there is no anus in the mouth, food enters the digestive cavity through the mouth, and the digested food residue is still excreted through the mouth.

Molluscs: Molluscs are protected by shells (squid and octopus are degenerated shells and mollusks).

Crustacea: There are hard nails on the body surface.

The growth environment of earthworms and the internal structure of rabbits are P 16.

Animals flying in the air: Animals flying in the air in nature appeared hundreds of millions of years ago. First, insects in invertebrates, then birds in vertebrates and bats in mammals. They are all terrestrial animals and are suitable for flying.

There are more than 9,000 species of birds and 6,543.8+0,000 species of insects in the world.

Birds are suitable for flying: birds are covered with feathers, and their forelimbs become wings, which has the ability to fly quickly; The car body has airbags; Body temperature is high and constant. The body structure and physiological characteristics of birds are adapted to their flying life.

Characteristics of insects: insects have three pairs of feet and can crawl; Some insects' feet are specialized into jumping feet, which can jump; Most insects have wings and can fly. Insects are the only flying animals among invertebrates.

Insect's body: it is divided into three parts: head, chest and abdomen. The moving organs-wings and feet are born in the chest. Exoskeleton is a tough shell covering the insect body, which can protect and support the soft organs inside and prevent the evaporation of water in the body.

Classification of insects: the classification of insects belongs to arthropods (the body is composed of many segments; There is an exoskeleton on the body surface; Feet and antennae are divided into arthropods)

Amphibians: Amphibians live in amphibious life, breathing with lungs and breathing with skin. This animal is called amphibian.

Animal movement: The pattern diagram of bones and joints of rabbits. The relationship between muscles and bones and joints is on P29.

Coordination of bones, joints and muscles: the change of bone position produces movement, but the bone itself cannot move. The movement of bones depends on the traction of skeletal muscles.

Exercise needs the control and adjustment of motor system and nervous system. It needs energy supply, so it also needs the cooperation of digestive system, respiratory system and circulatory system.

Animal behavior: feeding behavior, defensive behavior, reproductive behavior, migration behavior, etc. It can also be divided into innate behavior and learning behavior.

Characteristics of social behavior: animals with social behavior often form certain organizations within groups, with clear division of labor among members, and some groups also form hierarchies. This is the main feature of social behavior.

Information exchange among groups: 8 on P39

Ecological balance: There is an interdependent and restrictive relationship between the food chain and various organisms in the food web. In an ecosystem, the number and proportion of various organisms are always maintained in a relatively stable state, which is called ecological balance.

Animals and bioreactors: Using bioreactors to produce certain substances needed by human beings can save the cost of building factories and purchasing instruments and equipment, and reduce complex production procedures and environmental pollution.

Animals and bionics: Scientists imitate some structures and functions of organisms through careful observation and study, and invent and create various instruments and equipment, which is bionic.

Colony: Colony is relatively small with smooth or sticky surface or rough and dry. Fungal colonies are usually several to dozens times larger than bacterial colonies. The colonies formed by molds are often fluffy, flocculent or cobweb-like, sometimes red, brown, green, black and yellow.

Discovery of bacteria: Dutch Levin Hook made a microscope of 200~300 times to observe the tartar of the elderly and found bacteria.

Pasteur used a goose neck bottle to prove that bacteria were produced by pre-existing bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria and yeast were also found, and the methods of preserving wine, pasteurization and preventing surgical infection were put forward. Later, he was called "the father of microbiology".

Morphology and structure of bacteria: the individual of bacteria is very small, about 654.38+0 billion bacteria are as big as a grain of rice. The morphology of bacteria can only be observed by high-power microscope or electron microscope ... Bacteria have no P60 on nucleus 8.

Bacterial reproduction: Bacteria reproduce by division. Some bacteria will shrink in the late growth stage, the cell wall will thicken and form spores. Spore is a dormant body of bacteria and has strong resistance to adverse environment.

Fungal reproduction: Fungi reproduce their offspring by producing a large number of spores.

The role of bacteria and fungi in nature: 1. Participate in the material cycle as a decomposer. 2. Bring diseases to animals, plants and people. 3. Live with animals and plants.

Human Utilization of Bacteria and Fungi: 8 on P70

Biological classification: classification is based on the morphological and structural characteristics of organisms. The basic unit of classification is species.

Plant classification: 8 P8 1.

The biological classification from big to small is: boundary, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.

Creatures under the eighth grade

Plant propagation:

Sexual reproduction: They bloom, pollinate, bear fruit, and reproduce from the seeds of fruits. The embryo in the seed is developed by combining bisexual germ cells into fertilized eggs.

Asexual reproduction: new individuals are directly produced by the mother and do not need the combination of bisexual germ cells.

Grafting: Grafting the buds or branches of one plant to another plant, so that the two parts can be combined to grow into a complete plant.

Abnormal development: In the process of developing from fertilized eggs to new individuals, the morphological structure and living habits of silkworm larvae and adults are very different. This development process is called metamorphosis.

Complete metamorphosis: after four stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult, this development process is complete metamorphosis.

Incomplete metamorphosis: after three stages: egg, nymph and adult, this development process is incomplete metamorphosis.

Reproductive and developmental processes of birds: including courtship, mating, nesting, spawning, hatching and brooding.

Genetic control of biological characteristics: heredity refers to the similarity between parents and children, and variation refers to the differences between parents and children and between offspring individuals. The inheritance and variation of organisms are realized through reproduction and development.

Relative traits: different manifestations of the same trait.

Genes and chromosomes: There are chromosomes in the nucleus, and there are protein and DNA in the chromosomes. The morphology and number of chromosomes in each biological cell are determined.

There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in biological cells (except germ cells) and human somatic cells.

1883, Belgian embryologist Edward van Beneden discovered that the sperm and chromosomes of Ascaris carinii only have two pairs of chromosomes.

Gene transfer through sperm or egg cells

1858~ 1865 Austrian Mendel discovered the dominance and recessive of genes.

1902, American cytologist Mike Lang discovered that a pair of chromosomes in male cells are different from other chromosomes, which he called sex chromosomes.

1905, American cytologist Wilson said that male sex chromosomes are X and Y chromosomes, and the same pair of chromosomes in female cells are the same, both of which are X chromosomes.

From 65438 to 0953, Miller, a young American scholar, simulated primitive earth conditions and atmospheric composition and synthesized a variety of amino acids.

The trend of biological evolution: from simple to complex, from low to advanced, from aquatic to terrestrial.

Darwin's theory of nature: in nature, all biological individuals have the characteristics of heredity and variation. Only those individuals with favorable variation can easily survive in struggle for existence and pass these variations on to the next generation, while those individuals with unfavorable variation are easily eliminated. In this way, the creatures in nature, through fierce competition for survival, the fittest survive and the unsuitable are eliminated, which is natural selection. Organisms continue to evolve through heredity, variation and natural selection.

Pathogen: bacteria, viruses and parasites that cause infectious diseases.

Three basic links in the epidemic of infectious diseases

Source of infection: a person or animal that can spread pathogens.

Transmission route: the route through which pathogens leave the source of infection and reach healthy people. Such as air transmission, food transmission, biological media transmission and so on.

Susceptible population: people who lack immunity to infectious diseases and are susceptible to them.

Preventive measures of infectious diseases: The preventive measures of infectious diseases can be divided into three aspects: controlling the source of infection, cutting off the route of transmission and protecting susceptible people.

Three lines of defense for human body: 1. Skin and mucous membrane. Bactericidal substances and phagocytes in body fluids. Antibodies produced by immune organs and immune cells.

The third line of defense is the acquired defense function gradually established by the human body after birth, which is characterized by being born and only acting on specific pathogens or foreign bodies, so it is called specific immunity (also known as acquired immunity).

Three functions of immunity: 1. Eliminate aging, death and damaged cells in the body; 2. Resist the invasion of antigens and prevent diseases; 3. Monitor, identify and eliminate abnormal cells produced in the body.

Harm of immunization and planned immunization: P78 under 8

Prescription drug (RX): It can only be purchased with the prescription of a licensed physician or a licensed assistant physician, and the medicine should be taken according to the doctor's advice.

OTC: You can buy it without a doctor's prescription and take the medicine according to the instructions.

Methods of artificial respiration and chest compression: P84 for 8 times.

External bleeding: it can be divided into capillary bleeding, venous bleeding and arterial bleeding.

Harm of smoking and taking drugs: 8 P95

7 Respondents: Set a good example for you-probation level 1 4-22 22: 13

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Review outline of the final exam of the first volume of the eighth grade biology

I. animals living in water

1. There are about 1.5 million known animal species, which can be divided into vertebrates and invertebrates according to whether they have backbones or not. According to the living environment, it can be divided into terrestrial animals, aquatic animals and air animals.

2, the most common aquatic animals are fish, in addition, there are ① coelenterates, such as anemones and corals; 2 mollusks, such as squid and octopus; (3) Crustaceans, such as shrimps and crabs; ④ Aquatic animals such as dolphins (mammals) and turtles (reptiles).

3. The two most important characteristics of fish adapting to life in water are: ① they can get food by swimming and defend themselves against enemies. (2) can breathe in water.

The four major fishes are herring, silver carp, grass carp and bighead carp.

5. Fish are lower vertebrates.

6. The fish is spindle-shaped, which reduces swimming resistance and is suitable for swimming. Fish is divided into three parts: head, trunk and tail.

8. When a fish swims, it mainly relies on the left and right swinging of its body, trunk and tail fin to hit the water flow to generate forward power, and other fins play an auxiliary role. When fish move, dorsal fin, pectoral fin and ventral fin all have the function of maintaining balance, and caudal fin has the function of determining the direction of fish movement.

9. The sensory organ of fish is the lateral line (feel the current and determine the direction).

10, fish gills are bright red because they are rich in capillaries; The gill filaments are many and thin, which greatly increase the contact area with water and promote the gas exchange between blood and the outside world.

12. Water flows into the gills from the fish mouth, and then flows out from the back edge of the gill cover (gill hole). When water flows through the gill filament, oxygen dissolved in the water enters the capillary of the gill filament, while carbon dioxide is discharged into the water from the gill filament. Therefore, compared with the water flowing in through the mouth, the water flowing out through the gills has a lower oxygen content and a higher carbon dioxide content.

13, the main characteristics of fish are: suitable for living in _ water _; The surface quilt _ scale _ breathes with _ gills _; Swim by swinging the tail and coordinating the fins.

14. Anemones, jellyfish, corals and other animals have simple structures. They have mouths, but no anus. Food enters the digestive cavity from the oral cavity, and the digested food residue is still discharged from the oral cavity. These animals are called coelenterates.

15. Molluscs, such as mussels and moths, which rely on shells to protect their bodies, are called mollusks. Squid and octopus have degenerated shells and are also mollusks.

16, shrimps and crabs have hard nails on their bodies, which are called crustaceans.

17. Various organisms in water are an important part of aquatic ecosystem. They form a close and complicated connection through food chain and food web, and at the same time they are all affected by water environment. The change of their species and the increase or decrease of their quantity will affect human life.

18. Seahorses are fish, whales, dolphins and seals are mammals, and turtles and turtles are reptiles.

Two. Earthworms, an animal that lives on land.

1, adaptation of terrestrial animals: ① dry climate ... structures to prevent water loss in the body, such as reptiles with horny scales or nails and insects with exoskeletons. ② Water lacks buoyancy ... organs that support the body and movement ... There are many kinds of movement modes, such as crawling, walking, jumping, running and crawling. In order to find food and avoid the enemy. (3) Gaseous oxygen for breathing ... There are respiratory organs that can breathe in the air and are located in the body, such as lungs and trachea (except earthworms, which breathe by the body wall). (4) The temperature difference between day and night is large, and the environment changes rapidly and complicatedly ... There are developed sensory organs and nervous system, which can cope with the changeable environment in time.

2. Earthworms live in moist soil rich in humus, make their bodies squirm through the cooperation of muscles and bristles, and breathe by the body wall that can secrete mucus and always keep moist. You can judge the beginning and end according to the fact that the infant is attached to the front end of the body (also called the reproductive belt).

3. The significance of earthworm segmentation: it can make the earthworm move flexibly and turn easily.

4. Touching the abdominal surface of earthworm segments with fingers has a rough feeling. Observing with a magnifying glass, we can see that there are many small protrusions on the abdominal surface that are bristles, and the role of bristles is to assist movement (fixation; Support)

5. The reason why earthworms dig holes in the deep layer of moist soil: It can provide earthworms with suitable living and living environment and breeding conditions, which generally include suitable temperature, humidity, gaseous oxygen, food and habitat that is easy to avoid enemies. Earthworms can't keep a constant body temperature and can only live in deep soil with little temperature change.

6. In the experiment of observing earthworms, why do you often wipe the body surface of earthworms with wet cotton balls soaked in water to keep the body surface moist? Earthworms don't have a respiratory system, but rely on a body wall that can secrete mucus and keep it moist all the time.

7. Earthworms' living environment: burrowing in soil with certain temperature and humidity, little change in temperature difference and rich humus. Living habits and eating habits: generally, I don't sleep at night and feed on dead leaves, rotten roots and other organic substances.

8. Earthworms will climb to the ground after heavy rain. Reason: After the heavy rain, too much rain will crowd out the air in the soil, so the burrowing earthworm is forced to climb to the surface to breathe.

9. Breathing process of earthworm: The body wall of earthworm is densely covered with capillaries, and the oxygen in the air first dissolves in the mucus on the body surface and then enters the capillaries on the body wall. Carbon dioxide in the body is also discharged from the body surface through capillaries on the body wall.

10. Animals whose bodies are composed of many similar annular segments are called annelids, such as earthworms, nereis and leeches.

Three. Animals that live on land-rabbits

1. Mammals: viviparous, breastfeeding (high survival rate of offspring), hairy body surface and constant body temperature, such as rabbits and giant pandas.

2. Warm-blooded animals: animals that can keep their body temperature constant through self-regulation so that their body temperature does not change with external changes, including birds and mammals. On the contrary, animals whose body temperature changes with the ambient temperature are temperature-changing animals, such as snakes and insects. The significance of constant temperature: reducing dependence on the external environment and expanding the scope of life and distribution.

3. Rabbit: Hair on the body surface (insulation), breathing with lungs, four cavities in the heart, systemic and pulmonary circulation, constant body temperature, developed incisors and molars, developed cecum (under the action of bacteria, it is helpful for the digestion of plant fibers), developed brain and flexible limbs.

4. Jumping is the main movement form of rabbits (the back is longer than the front legs and muscular).

5, the feeding habits of rabbits: plants (grass). Rabbit's body is divided into four parts: head, trunk, silk and tail.

6. Rabbit's teeth are divided into incisors and molars. The front teeth are like chisels, suitable for cutting food, and the molars have a wide chewing surface, suitable for grinding food. Rabbits have developed cecum, which is suitable for rabbits to eat plants. Mammals such as wolves and tigers also have sharp canine teeth, which are used to tear food (also used for attacking and preying).

6. Diaphragm is a unique structure of mammals.

7. Adequate food, water and shelter are the basic environmental conditions for the survival of terrestrial animals.

8. The internal structure of rabbits is similar to that of humans, indicating that humans and rabbits are close in taxonomic status and belong to mammals, but human cecum has degenerated because humans are omnivorous.

Fourth, flying animals-domestic pigeons

1. Animals flying in the air include insects, bats and birds.

There are more than 9000 kinds of birds in the world. Except for a few birds such as ostriches and penguins, most of them are good at flying. Flying expands the range of birds' activities, which is conducive to foraging and breeding offspring.

3. Birds are suitable for flying: ① the body is streamlined (which can reduce the air resistance during flight); ② The body surface is covered with feathers; Forelimbs become wings; ③ There are towering keel-like protrusions on the chest; Long bones are hollow (filled with air); ④ The pectoral muscles are developed; ⑤ Eat a lot and digest quickly. That is, the digestive system is developed, and the digestion, absorption and elimination of feces are very rapid. ⑥ The heart has four chambers, with fast heartbeat, perfect circulatory system structure and strong ability to transport nutrients and oxygen. ⑦ There are developed airbags, which can not only lose weight, but also form unique double breathing with the lungs. 8 short beak, toothless mouth, no bladder, short rectum, timely defecation, degeneration of right ovary and fallopian tube (these are all for weight loss and suitable for flying).

In a word, a bird is an animal with feathers on its surface, wings on its forelimbs, the ability to fly quickly, an air bag inside and a high and constant body temperature.

4. Wings are the flying organs of birds. Airbags help the lungs breathe.

5. Birds' feathers are divided into normal feathers (mainly used for flying) and fluff (mainly used for keeping warm).

6. Pigeons have no teeth in their mouths, and food enters crops through the pharynx and esophagus without chewing. -Into the muscular stomach (grinding food with sand and pebbles).

Five, flying animals-insects

1. Insects are the most diverse animals, exceeding 1 10,000 species. They are also the only flying invertebrates, so they are the most widely distributed animals.

2. The insect body is divided into three parts: head, chest and abdomen. There are usually three pairs of feet and two pairs of wings. Spiders, centipedes, shrimps and crabs are not insects, but they are all arthropods. Arthropods are characterized in that the body is composed of many segments, with exoskeleton, feet and tentacles on the surface.

3. The exoskeleton of insects is a tough shell covering the surface of insects, which can protect and support the soft organs inside and prevent the evaporation of water in the body.

2. Amphibians: larvae live in water, breathe through gills, develop into adults through metamorphosis, live in amphibians, breathe through lungs, and use skin to assist breathing. Representative animals: frogs and toads.

Six, the movement of animals

1. The motor system of mammals consists of bones and muscles. Bones are made up of many bones.

2. Skeletal muscle includes a thick abdomen in the middle and thin tendons at both ends (milky white). The two ends of a group of muscles are attached to different bones. Skeletal muscle has the characteristic of contraction after nerve stimulation.

3. Skeletal muscles can only contract and pull the bone, but can't push it away, so at least two groups of muscles are connected with the bone, and they cooperate with each other to complete various activities, especially elbow extension and elbow flexion: when elbow flexion, the biceps brachii contracts, the triceps brachii relaxes, and when elbow extension, the opposite is true.

4. Double ratio droops naturally, biceps brachii relaxes and triceps brachii relaxes; When lifting a heavy object vertically with both hands or grasping the horizontal bar with both hands, the body naturally sags, and the biceps brachii and triceps brachii contract.

5. Functions of sports system: sports, support and protection. In exercise, the nervous system plays a regulatory role, bones play a lever role, joints play a fulcrum role (also called fulcrum role), and skeletal muscles play a dynamic role. It can be seen that the human body must have the adjustment of the nervous system, the participation of bones, skeletal muscles and joints, and the coordination of multiple groups of muscles to complete an action.

6. Relationship between bones, joints and muscles: Skeletal muscle contracts, which affects the bones attached to it and moves around the joints, so the body moves.

7. The exercise system is controlled and regulated by the nervous system, and completes the exercise with the cooperation of the digestive system, respiratory system and circulatory system (energy comes from the decomposition of organic matter). Developed sports ability is conducive to predation and avoidance of the enemy, thus adapting to the complex and changeable environment.

8. The joint consists of articular surface, articular capsule and articular cavity. The articular surface includes articular head and articular fossa. The structural features that make the joint firm are: joint capsule and ligaments inside and outside the joint capsule. The structural feature that makes joint movement flexible is that the articular surface is covered with a layer of articular cartilage with smooth surface, and the inner surface of joint capsule can secrete synovial fluid, which can reduce the friction between the two articular surfaces during exercise and cushion the vibration during exercise.

9. Dislocation: The joint head slides out of the joint socket. (due to exercise or physical labor, due to overexertion or accidental fall. )

Six, animal behavior

1. According to different behaviors, animal behaviors can be divided into aggressive behaviors, feeding behaviors, defensive behaviors, reproductive behaviors and migratory behaviors. According to the different ways of acquisition, it can be divided into innate behavior and learning behavior.

2. Congenital behavior refers to the innate behavior of animals, which is determined by the genetic material in the body and is necessary to maintain the most basic survival, such as spiders weaving webs, bees collecting honey, ants nesting and so on. Learning behavior refers to the behavior obtained from life experience and learning through the role of environment on the basis of genetic factors. The higher an animal is, the stronger its learning ability, the stronger its ability to adapt to the environment, and the greater its significance for survival.

2. Social behavior: the behavior of animals living in groups, in which different members of the group work together to maintain the life of the group. (Note: Not all animals living in camps have social behavior, such as locusts. )

3. Most social behaviors have the following characteristics: ① there is a clear division of labor among the members of the organization within the group; ③ Some even form a hierarchy.

4. Communication: The phenomenon that an animal in a group sends some information to other individuals, and the individual who receives the information produces some behavioral response. Division of labor and cooperation need to exchange information at any time, including actions, sounds, smells and so on.

5. Using extracted or synthetic sex pheromones as attractants can trap and kill agricultural pests; Putting a certain amount of sex pheromones in farmland interferes with the communication between males and females, making males unable to judge the position of females and mate, and also achieving the purpose of controlling the number of pests.

Namely: (1) making insect sex pheromones to trap and kill insects; (2) creating interference, so that insects can't identify the sex pheromones of the same kind of insects.

6、

Seven, the role of animals in the biosphere

1. The role of animals in nature: ① maintaining the ecological balance of nature; (2) promoting the material circulation of the ecosystem; ③ Help plants pollinate and spread seeds.

2. Ecological balance: The quantity and proportion of various organisms in the ecosystem have always remained relatively stable. This phenomenon is called ecological balance.

2. There are interdependent and restrictive relationships between the food chain and various organisms in the food web. If any one of them goes wrong, it will affect the whole ecosystem. It is precisely because of the existence of material flow, energy flow and information flow that all kinds of creatures and environments become a unified whole.

3. The role of animals in people's lives: they can be eaten, used medicinally and watched by human beings, which is closely related to bioreactor and bionics.

4. Bioreactor: Using biology as a "production workshop" to produce some substances needed by human beings. This organism or an organ of an organism is a bioreactor. At present, the most ideal bioreactor is "mammary gland bioreactor". Its significance lies in: low production cost, high efficiency, simple equipment, obvious product effect and reduced industries.

5. Pollution, etc.

6. Bionics: Inventing and creating various instruments and equipment by imitating some structures and functions of living things.

6. Common bionic examples: "anti-load suit" worn by astronauts, electroluminescence, radar, thin-shell buildings and intelligent robots.

Eight, experimental exploration

1, carefully observe the chest and abdomen of locusts. You can find a row of neatly arranged holes on the left and right sides. This is the valve. The valve is connected with the trachea in the locust body, and the valve is the gateway for gas to enter the locust body. Please refer to the given.

I. Bacteria and fungi

7. Colony: An aggregate visible to the naked eye formed by bacteria or fungi after reproduction, called colony.

Bacterial colony characteristics: the surface is small, smooth and sticky or rough and dry, white;

Fungal colony characteristics: large, fluffy, flocculent cobweb-like, with red, green, yellow, brown, black and other colors.

8. Culture methods of bacteria and fungi: ① preparation of culture medium ② high temperature sterilization ③ inoculation ④ constant temperature culture.

9. Culture medium: organic matter containing nutrients.

10. The survival of bacteria and fungi also needs certain conditions: moisture, suitable temperature, organic matter (nutrients), certain living space, etc. In addition, some are aerobic and some are anaerobic (that is, life activities are inhibited when aerobic). Except for a few bacteria, they can't synthesize organic matter by themselves, and can only use ready-made organic matter as nutrition (i.e. heterotrophic nutrition).