How did the relations of production adjust in Ming and Qing Dynasties? What is its influence and what does it show?

The reform is mainly the reform of service law, and it also involves land tax. In the Ming Dynasty, corvee was Li Jia's official service, compulsory service and handyman. Among them, the family is the main unit, and the households are divided into three classes and nine items according to the amount of grain, which is the basis for compiling the differential rules. Ding Zhi/KLOC-Men aged 0/6 to 60, grain refers to land tax. The amount of grain depends on mu, so the corvee also includes a part of mu tax. The implementation of this corvee system is conditional on the widespread existence of small land ownership by yeomen and the relative stability of land ownership. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, land annexation was fierce, land rights were highly concentrated, officials and gentry took over, large families bullied them, corvees increased, and farmers fled, which made Li Jia's households and fields more than real, and the government's fiscal revenue decreased. In view of this phenomenon, many people put forward reform measures. Starting from ensuring the service, the state gradually shifted the focus of corvee compilation from family to field. The development of commodity economy and the rise of monetary function have also created conditions for this change.

Poor peasants and farmland taxes are two different kinds of exploitation to peasants. Before the implementation of the flogging law, although some differences were shared among fields, the proportion was very small. After the implementation of the whip criminal law, the part of the service silver borne by the family has shrunk, and the part shared in the field has increased. The additional obligations of the state mainly fall on the landowners, who initially have the nature of expanding land. It not only reduces tax items and simplifies tax collection methods, but also changes the nature of tax collection. This change specifically reflects two transitions, one is from cash tax and active tax system to monetary tax, and the other is from family tax to land tax. However, except for a few counties, people in most areas still have to bear different amounts of service money, and this transition was finally completed after the showdown in the Qing Dynasty.

A whip method was implemented, which broke the Li family's boundary in the establishment of the service silver, and changed it to the county as the basic unit, and all the service silver in a county was distributed to the grain in the county. When compiling the levy, we should consider the nature of the land and the labor situation of each household, that is, the so-called "measuring the land according to the size." According to Qin Long's fourth year (1570), the chief secretary of Jiangnan belongs to Fuzhou County, and the total amount of silver is one year old. According to the second item of food, those who have no food are still the next household; Those who have food and food are listed as middle households, and those who have food and food are listed as upper households. "All depend on food and food." This was approved as a regulation. It can be seen that "measuring the land and calculating the size" was the basic principle of compiling the service silver at that time.

In the process of implementing a whipping method, the specific practices in different regions vary greatly. Some have a fixed proportion of grain, such as Jiangning, Luzhou and Anqing in Nanzhili, and the service silver in Dengzhou (now Dengxian, Henan) and Xinye counties is levied according to the proportion of "Ding Yi Liang San", and the service silver in Baishui County, Shaanxi Province is levied according to the proportion of "Liu Ding Liang Si"; Some people stipulate the amount of silver per grain, stone and acre, such as Jiading County, Jiangsu Province, which collects one cent of service silver per hectare, 77 cents per acre, Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, 54 cents per acre, and Cao Xian County, Shandong Province, which collects 27 cents per acre; Others share all the service silver to mu. For example, in Shixing County, Guangdong Province, 26 cents is levied on each grain, and Yutai County, Shandong Province will distribute all the service silver to the tax grain. As far as the proportion of service silver is concerned, except that a few areas spread all the service silver into mu in the late Ming Dynasty, and households no longer bear the service silver, it can be summarized into the following three categories: ① A small part of service silver is spread into mu, and households still bear most of the service silver. (2) The farmland is divided into service silver, that is, half of the service silver in each county is spread into mu of land, and the other half is borne by households. (3) Give priority to fields, supplemented by Ding, that is, most of the service silver in each county is divided into mu, and the rest is borne by Hu Ding.

As early as the Xuanzong Xuande period (1426 ~ 1435), the "one-sign" method appeared in the south of the Yangtze River, and in the English Orthodox period (1436 ~ 1449), the mouse-tailed script appeared in Jiangxi, and in the Chenghua period (/kloc) The implementation of a national whipping method began in the ninth year of Jiajing (1530). South Zhili (about today's Jiangsu and Anhui) and Zhejiang provinces, followed by Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi, took the lead in implementing heavy taxes, but at this time it was only limited to some counties and counties, and it was not widely implemented. Because the tax and fee reform touched the economic interests of officials, gentry and landlords, the progress was slow at first, and it was gradually popularized from the forty years of Jiajing to the ten years of Qin Long, Mu Zong (1567 ~ 1572). During Zhang's reign, which was first laid in the early years of Wanli, after a large-scale clean-up, it was implemented nationwide and made rapid progress. After ten years of Wanli (1582), remote areas such as Yunnan-Guizhou in the southwest and Shaanxi-Gansu in the northwest were also implemented one after another. However, even in the Central Plains, some counties did not begin to implement it until the Chongzhen period (1628 ~ 1644). This reform has gone through a hundred years from Jiajing to Chongzhen. It was actively advocated at that time. In addition to Gui Calyx, Zhang et al., during Jiajing period, there were college students Gu, Yushifu and Huotao, the official minister. Among the local officials, there were Ouyang Bijin, Ouyang Duo, Suzhou magistrate Wang Yi, Jiangxi Governor Cai Kelian, Guangdong Governor Pan Jixun, Guangdong, Nanzhili and Zhejiang local official Pang, Yingtian and Jiangxi Governor Zhou Rudou, Yingtian Governor Liu Keji and Governor Wang.

In the late feudal society of China, the appearance of flogging had certain historical significance. First of all, after the mid-Ming dynasty, due to the fierce merger of officials, gentry and landlords, the amount of land between villages became more and more different. The corvee system with Li Jia as the editing unit made the family burden more and more uneven, and many farmers went bankrupt and fled. After the whip method was changed, the editing unit of the service silver was expanded from Li Jia to all counties, which played a certain role in regulating the phenomenon that Bailey's family burden was extremely light and heavy, temporarily alleviating the class contradiction caused by the service silver problem, and was conducive to the development of agricultural production. Secondly, in the early Ming Dynasty, the grain length system and the lining system were formulated to ensure tax collection, which strictly controlled the number of households and seriously restricted people's freedom of migration. The implementation of a whip law has weakened the personal slavery relationship formed by the corvee system for a long time, and farmers have gained more freedom. In addition, compared with the labor system in the early Ming Dynasty, one whip and one method can better adapt to the development of social economy and promote the development of commodity production. The monetization of taxes and labor services has enabled more rural products to enter the market, further disintegrating the natural economy and creating conditions for the further development of industry and commerce.

Due to the limitation of historical conditions, in the next generation, a whip method has not been seriously implemented. In areas that have been implemented, some local officials still force farmers to engage in various corvees; Have a plenty of extra money, in addition to the whip also set up a small whip, in addition to the fire consumption also added a scale head; What's more, a whip method was used to collect taxes. In some areas, the original whip amount was 50 cents per mu. During the Chongzhen period, in order to fight against the Qing army, it was raised to more than one yuan.

Tanding became Mu. This is a major tax reform. China has been taxed since ancient times, and adult men, rich or poor, have to pay poll tax. Yongzheng carried out reforms, spread the per capita tax into mu, and determined the tax amount according to the number of mu. More land is paid, less land is collected, and no land is collected. It means "spread your money to the ground", and the poll tax is cancelled in one fell swoop. This measure is beneficial to the poor, not to the landlords, and it is a major reform in China's fiscal and taxation history. Return envy to the public. In ancient China, silver and copper were used as money. When collecting taxes, silver and copper are lost in exchange, casting, preservation and transportation, so there is a certain surcharge when collecting taxes. This kind of surcharge, called "consumption envy" or "fire consumption", has been levied by local counties as extra income for local offices and officials. Consumption envy can't set the amount of levy, and counties will have to levy heavy taxes if they want to do whatever they want. Some will take one or two taxes and spend five or six dollars, which is a heavy burden for ordinary people. Yongzheng implemented the policy of "envy returning to the public" and changed this additional tax into statutory tax and fixed tax, which was managed by the governor. Tax revenue, in addition to office expenses, is used as a "pension fund", which greatly increases the salary of officials. In this way, it not only lightens the burden on the people, but also ensures the implementation of a clean government. Therefore, Yongzheng said, "Since the promulgation of this law, the administration of officials has been a little bit clear, so there is no need to reinvent the wheel."

The Qing government brought Ding Yin, who lived next to each other in the past dynasties, into the tax system imposed by land tax. This is an important reform of the tax system in the late feudal society of China. Originated in Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong years, it was widely practiced. Its main content is to abolish the poll tax. Since then, the population of China has increased rapidly, which is objectively the relaxation of the individual control of the bottom farmers.

The practice of expanding the land into acres:

Incorporating Ding Yin into the collection of land tax abolished the previous poll tax, so the landless peasants and other laborers got rid of the burden of hard labor for thousands of years. The increase of landlord's tax burden has also restricted or alleviated land merger to some extent; However, the burden on farmers with less land is relatively reduced.

At the same time, the government also relaxed the control of household registration, allowing farmers and craftsmen to move freely and sell their labor. It is conducive to mobilizing the production enthusiasm of farmers and other laborers and promoting social production progress.

A method of flogging was practiced in the Ming Dynasty and continued in the Qing Dynasty. Some Ding Yin spread to the fields and collected some Ding Yin according to the population. When we arrived in Qianlong, it spread all over the country. After the land is spread into mu, the land and mu are unified, which simplifies the tax collection procedure.