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Where did the "Black Death" in Europe come from?

Introduction to the Black Death in Europe

The Black Death is the most mysterious disease in history. From 1348 to 1352, it turned Europe into a death trap, and this road of destruction destroyed one third of Europe's population, totaling about 25 million people! In the next 300 years, the Black Death will continue to visit towns in Europe and Asia, threatening those who survived the robbery. Although it is impossible to accurately count the number of deaths in Europe, the records left by many towns have witnessed amazing losses: 1467, 127000 Russian deaths, 1348 German chronicler Lubeck recorded 90000 deaths, with the highest number of deaths per day as high as 1500! In Vienna, 500-700 people die every day. According to Russian-Smolensk records, only 5 people survived 1386!

650 years ago, the Black Death spread all over Europe, which was the most horrible plague in European history. One of the most important figures in the history of European literature, Boccaccio, the pioneer of Italian Renaissance humanism, wrote decameron in 1348- 1353, which is a masterpiece with the theme of plague. The introduction talks about the serious epidemic in Florence. He described how the patient suddenly collapsed in the street and died, or died in his own house until the body smelled rotten, and the neighbors didn't know what happened next door. Travelers see barren villages, open wine cellars, ownerless cows wandering in the streets, but no sign of local residents.

Me! cB！ The Xz disaster was called the Black Death at that time, but it was actually a plague. The symptoms of plague were first recorded by a Florentine named Boccaccio in 1348. The initial symptom is a lymphatic lump in the groin or armpit, and then a bluish-black herpes appears in the arms, thighs and other body parts, which is the origin of the name of the Black Death. Few people are spared, almost all patients will die within 3 days, usually without fever symptoms.

The Black Death first appeared in a small town in Central Asia in 1338, and spread to India in the south around 1340, and then spread westward to eastern Russia along the ancient trade route. From 1340 to 1345, the Russian steppe was shrouded in the shadow of death. /kloc-in the winter of 0/345, the Tatars attacked Faka, the territory of Genoa, and the siege could not be stopped. The Tatars became angry and threw the bodies of the Black Death patients into the city. As a result, the plague prevailed in the city, most of the residents of Faka died, and only a few fled to the Mediterranean region. However, they are accompanied by a terrible epidemic.

1347, the iron hoof ravaged by the Black Death first crossed Constantinople, the largest trading city in Byzantium. By 1348, the Black Death broke out in Spain, Greece, Italy, France, Syria, Egypt and Palestine. 1352, the Black Death attacked Moscow, and even the Grand Duke of Moscow and the Orthodox Patriarchate capital died one after another. The Black Death has spread to all levels of society, and no one can escape the reality of death.

Soon, this cruel phenomenon has been everywhere in Europe. In Marseille, France, 56,000 people died of the plague. In Perpignan, only one of the only eight doctors in the city survived the plague. The situation in avignon is even worse. 7,000 houses in the city were destroyed by the epidemic. A church in Paris handled 4 19 wills in 9 months, 40 times more than before the outbreak of the plague; In Belgium, the bishop became the first victim of the plague. Since then, the death knell has been wailing for the new dead. Even the famous hundred-year war between Britain and France in history was forced to stop temporarily because of the outbreak of plague.

/kloc-at the end of 0/348, the plague spread to the hinterland of Germany and Austria. Wherever the god of plague went, thousands of people were swallowed up by the plague. In Vienna, 960 people died in one day, and one third of the clergy in Germany were killed by the plague, so many churches and monasteries could not be maintained.

In addition to the European continent, the plague also crossed the English Channel through fleas from mice on sailboats and spread to the smallest villages all over Britain. The rural labor force was greatly reduced, and some tenants in the manor even died. People living in medieval towns in England lived in high density, with piles of garbage and sewage. To make matters worse, they know almost nothing about infectious diseases. At that time, the way people handled the bodies of the deceased was also very simple, and the workers who handled the bodies themselves did not have protection, which contributed to the spread of the disease. In order to escape death, people tried various methods. They prayed to God, ate delicious meat and drank good wine ... The doctor tried to cure or alleviate this terrible symptom. They used all kinds of drugs and tried all kinds of treatments, from laxatives, emetics, bloodletting therapy, fumigation, burning lymph nodes or putting dried toads on them, and even taking a bath with urine, but death kept coming to the world. Some people who are deeply bound by religion think that this is a divine punishment caused by the fall of mankind. They marched in European towns, beating each other with iron-tipped whips and humming, "I am the most guilty." In Mainz, Germany,1.20 thousand Jews were burned alive as the disseminators of the plague, and in Strasbourg,1.60 thousand Jews were killed. Only a few sober people realize that animals may spread diseases, so they focus their hatred on domestic animals such as cats and dogs. They killed all the livestock. The streets are full of rotting bodies of cats and dogs, and the rancid smell is suffocating. From time to time, a flustered domestic cat jumped over the dead body, and a group of people with cloth wrapped in their noses and mouths chased after them with wooden sticks. No one will pity these weak creatures, because they are regarded as the disseminators of the plague. However, people who are worried are not without gains. It has been found that isolation can effectively stop the spread of plague. Besides, they also know the function of disinfection. By the time the Black Death broke out again in Britain 300 years later, the isolation measures had developed to a quite perfect level, which effectively prevented the spread of the disease.

The Black Death completely changed the history of Europe and even the world. It brought death to everyone without prejudice. The dead aristocrats in the whole family left a lot of barren land. Because there is no labor force, their wages should be raised, and farmers have income to buy idle land. As a result, many of them became land-owning new noble, and the serf class collapsed. In China, the Beijing soldiers of the Ming Dynasty were being attacked by the plague and could not resist the attack of Li Zicheng's elite division. Because of the invasion of the Black Death, people learned a lot of hygiene habits, which completely improved the sewage system in Europe. To this day, people are still lamenting the spacious sewers in London, England. In addition, cremation began to become the most important way of funeral; The fireplace originally located in the center of the room was moved to the wall; The room became stronger and began to use plaster or stone instead of wood blocks.

The Black Death completely shook the shackles of religion, humanism began to recover, and the seeds of the Renaissance began to breed. In artists' works, religious images no longer dominate the world. Pessimism and depression, atonement and death became the important themes of this period, and the Gothic style was displayed in the later period.

More importantly, due to the Black Death, universities announced the suspension of classes, and the government did not allow people to travel far from home. It was during this period that a young man named isaac newton founded a very important mathematical discipline-calculus by solving infinite proportional series.

For many years, people have never stopped studying the Black Death. However, the latest research results have different views on the origin of the Black Death. The latest research results of British scientists show that the origin of this disaster is probably because a small comet exploded after entering the earth's atmosphere, which caused dust to cover the sky and triggered a global "nuclear winter", which indirectly caused crop failure, famine and plague. Researchers at the University of Liverpool believe that by studying the mode of transmission of the Black Death, it can be concluded that it was not bubonic plague, but was caused by a virus similar to Ebola, and it spread directly from person to person. People infected with this virus may die within 24 hours, with a mortality rate as high as 50%-90%.

Although there are different opinions about the origin of the Black Death, a theory put forward by Professor Duncan and Dr Scott of the University of Liverpool in England has attracted the approval of many scientists. They think that the Black Death may only be temporarily dormant and may break out again.

Respondent: Liu Yuqi-manager level 4 1-27 14:50.

black death

This disaster was called the Black Death at that time, but it was actually a plague. The symptoms of plague were first recorded by a Florentine named Boccaccio in 1348. The initial symptom is a lymphatic lump in the groin or armpit, and then a bluish-black herpes appears in the arms, thighs and other body parts, which is the origin of the name of the Black Death. Few people are spared, almost all patients will die within 3 days, usually without fever symptoms.

However, people who are worried are not without gains. It has been found that isolation can effectively stop the spread of plague. Besides, they also know the function of disinfection. By the time the Black Death broke out again in Britain 300 years later, the isolation measures had developed to a quite perfect level, which effectively prevented the spread of the disease.

In order to "atone", Christians are ready to be baptized with whips.

Boccaccio's decameron is a masterpiece on the theme of plague.

The way people dispose of bodies is simple.

The cemetery of St Lawrence's Church is one of the cemeteries for victims of the Black Death.

Many bishops can't escape the black death. When the campaign against the plague racialized the disease, it would lead to discriminatory public health activities and public health work would fail. When business groups and governments put economic and political interests above people's lives, public health work will also fail.

The San Francisco 1906 earthquake in the United States destroyed the city, killing thousands of people and leaving 250,000 homeless. Most public buildings, communication and transportation systems in San Francisco have also been damaged. Little is known about the two plagues before and after this catastrophe-1900 to 1905 and 1907 to 1908. The Black Death (bubonic plague) broke out in San Francisco.

When the Black Death was prevalent in San Francisco, local, state and federal health officials, as well as citizens' responses to the plague were very intriguing. Medical history experts and historians who study the western United States describe and analyze these events. Now, Marilyn, a medical reporter for the Wall Street Journal who lives in San Francisco? Marilyn Chase recently published Barbary Plague: The Black Death in San Francisco, Victoria, and told these tragic stories to more people in a vivid style. Although these stories have been told for 100 years, they can still give us a lot of enlightenment today.

There are 280 people infected with the plague in San Francisco, of which 65,438+072 people died-a small number in a city with a population of 350,000. Nevertheless, this is the first confirmed plague in the United States, exposing the main problems faced by public health services at that time and even now.

The Black Death is a terrible disease. Chase wrote: "The symptoms of this disease are severe fever and chills. The patient felt a splitting headache and lay dying in bed, unable to move. Severe pain spread to the back and limbs. Red lumps appear under the armpits and groin, which will be very painful once touched. There will be a large number of bleeding spots under the skin, and finally black congestion will be formed. The patient was in a trance, groaning, fidgeting, tossing and turning, and repeatedly grabbing the sheets. Their mania will only be slightly relieved when they fall into shock, and only death can finally stop it. "

1900 In March, the first person suffering from the Black Death in San Francisco died. His name is Huang, 4 1 year old, and he is a timber merchant living in Chinatown. Without waiting for the exact diagnosis, the municipal health department surrounded the buildings in Chinatown with ropes overnight, isolating the community. The health department did not isolate the building where Huang worked and lived, nor did it search for people who had contact with him, nor did it kill rats they knew were disease spreaders-they put the blame on all local Chinese residents, but the commercial enterprises run by white people in Chinatown were not isolated.

As more people are infected with this deadly infectious disease, all kinds of farce are staged. China residents protested the way the authorities handled it, because it was based on race and was naked racial discrimination. China people won the lawsuit, forcing the authorities to lift the isolation roadblocks. White business groups agree that this deadly disease is not a plague because they are afraid that their business activities will be affected (not because they oppose racial discrimination). The governor and health officials also opposed the diagnosis of the disease as the Black Death, because they were worried that it would damage San Francisco's reputation as a "beacon of health in the west". Except William? Rudolph. Besides the examiner, a newspaper run by Hastert, other newspapers also refused to admit the existence of the plague. In this way, municipal health officials and their only ally, the federal quarantine doctor from Angel Island (where the San Francisco Bay Area Immigration Bureau is located), can get very little public and financial support.

Joseph, the medical officer of Angel Island? Jin Yuan and his boss, Washington surgeon Walter? Weiman tried to implement some iron-fisted measures to control public health, including isolation measures (but the court ruled that this was "racial discrimination"), compulsory vaccination (also rejected by the court), travel restrictions, disinfection of buildings, and finally the demolition of wooden buildings. All these measures are aimed at Chinatown, although white people living in other places also have the Black Death.

After two public health doctors failed to control the spread of the epidemic and even fell into the political quagmire surrounding this matter, Washington sent a third person-Rupert? Blue. From 190 1 to 1908, Lan has been holding high the torch of the federal epidemic prevention struggle. In the plague outbreak after the earthquake, he took the most powerful public health measures. Instead of focusing on Chinese and Chinatown-most of the patients at that time were white-Lan focused on eliminating rats and eliminating the environment conducive to their reproduction. He replaced wooden buildings with cement buildings and launched a campaign to encourage people to catch mice. Every time they catch one, they will get a reward of 10 cents. Blue tirelessly met with civic groups and specially organized women's clubs to clean houses in towns. His efforts eventually established a broad alliance and defeated the Black Death.

Chase studied a large number of files and consulted family documents still in private hands, which enabled her to add many new and personalized details to the stories of these public health officials. China's viewpoint that she excavated has not been completely discovered in previous studies, especially the personal stories of those who suffered from the Black Death. This makes the book The Plague from Babalj rich in characters and dramatic scenes, which is very interesting to read. Unfortunately, Chase stopped writing before pointing out the lessons we can learn from this history. She admitted that "the destruction of the public health system will make a country vulnerable to diseases". In fact, the San Francisco incident may be a typical case in the history of public health. Smallpox and other plagues that shocked American society are beyond the control of one person's actions.

The two lessons learned from the epidemic in San Francisco are the most obvious: when the campaign against plague racialized the disease and led to discriminatory public health activities, public health work would fail; When business groups and governments put economic and political interests above people's lives, public health work will also fail. If we are attacked by terrorists' biological weapons in the 2 1 century, if we remember the following points, it will help us to deal with it better: relying solely on medical knowledge, government power or strong economy is not enough for us to survive healthily; To be exact, the use of knowledge and power must be governed by the principle of justice and serve the interests of the majority, not the minority.

Respondent: Armature-Scholar Level 3 1-28 1 1:27.

Introduction to the Black Death in Europe

The Black Death is the most mysterious disease in history. From 1348 to 1352, it turned Europe into a death trap, and this road of destruction destroyed one third of Europe's population, totaling about 25 million people! In the next 300 years, the Black Death will continue to visit towns in Europe and Asia, threatening those who survived the robbery. Although it is impossible to accurately count the number of deaths in Europe, the records left by many towns witnessed amazing losses: 1467, 127000 Russian deaths, 1348 German chronicler Lubeck recorded 90000 deaths, with the highest death toll of 1500! In Vienna, 500-700 people die every day. According to the records of Russia-Smolensk, 1386 only 5 people survived! ki/c%or^； z

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mDN。 N3？ This disaster was called the Black Death at that time, but it was actually a plague. The symptoms of plague were first recorded by a Florentine named Boccaccio in 1348. The initial symptom is a lymphatic lump in the groin or armpit, and then a bluish-black herpes appears in the arms, thighs and other body parts, which is the origin of the name of the Black Death. Few people are spared, almost all patients will die within 3 days, usually without fever symptoms. " fR(i*{ F/Fh:y%qu

1X6Q/]& amp； Yc。 Before long, this cruel phenomenon has blossomed all over Europe. In Marseille, France, 56,000 people died of the plague. In Perpignan, only one of the only eight doctors in the city survived the plague. The situation in avignon is even worse. 7,000 houses in the city were destroyed by the epidemic. A church in Paris handled 4 19 wills in 9 months, 40 times more than before the outbreak of the plague; In Belgium, the bishop became the first victim of the plague. Since then, the death knell has been wailing for the new dead. Even the famous hundred-year war between Britain and France in history was forced to stop temporarily because of the outbreak of plague. R"^lbhu

FE8wO(@+u In addition to the European continent, the plague also crossed the English Channel through fleas from mice on sailboats, spread all over Britain and spread to the smallest villages. The rural labor force was greatly reduced, and some tenants in the manor even died. People living in medieval towns in England lived in high density, with piles of garbage and sewage. To make matters worse, they know almost nothing about infectious diseases. At that time, the way people handled the bodies of the deceased was also very simple, and the workers who handled the bodies themselves did not have protection, which contributed to the spread of the disease. In order to escape death, people tried various methods. They prayed to God, ate delicious meat and drank good wine ... The doctor tried to cure or alleviate this terrible symptom. They used all kinds of drugs and tried all kinds of treatments, from laxatives, emetics, bloodletting therapy, fumigation, burning lymph nodes or putting dried toads on them, and even taking a bath with urine, but death kept coming to the world. Some people who are deeply bound by religion think that this is a divine punishment caused by the fall of mankind. They marched in European towns, beating each other with iron-tipped whips and humming, "I am the most guilty." In Mainz, Germany,1.20 thousand Jews were burned alive as the disseminators of the plague, and in Strasbourg,1.60 thousand Jews were killed. Only a few sober people realize that animals may spread diseases, so they focus their hatred on domestic animals such as cats and dogs. They killed all the livestock. The streets are full of rotting bodies of cats and dogs, and the rancid smell is suffocating. From time to time, a flustered domestic cat jumped over the dead body, and a group of people with cloth wrapped in their noses and mouths chased after them with wooden sticks. No one will pity these weak creatures, because they are regarded as the disseminators of the plague. n `！ Lq 1[p8|oW

L+] t7g) 5sg However, people who are worried are not without gains. It has been found that isolation can effectively stop the spread of plague. Besides, they also know the function of disinfection. By the time the Black Death broke out again in Britain 300 years later, the isolation measures had developed to a quite perfect level, which effectively prevented the spread of the disease. T"h9C/e#c3v