Enlightened monarchs and enlightenment 3

After Austria lost the war of succession to the throne, Teresa and her son Joseph II were determined to reform. The main contents include: abolishing serfdom, establishing a unified state institution, depriving Catholic bishops of secular rights in the empire, and interfering in papal affairs. However, the reform aroused strong opposition and eventually ended in resentment.

Since Brandenburg came to power, the Hornsauron family has been committed to expanding their territory. /kloc-won the election title in the 0/5th century, and/kloc-won East Prussia, a subsidiary of Poland, in the 0/7th century. Brandenburg election became Brandenburg-Prussia election. It was not until 170 1 that Frederick I became a participant in the Spanish war of succession to the throne.

After Frederick II (1740- 1786) succeeded to the throne, he encouraged the protection of industrial and commercial development, paid special attention to the arms industry, and even granted tax exemption and subsidies.

In order to provide convenience for industrial and commercial development, he unified the monetary system, founded banks, established postal services, built roads, opened canals, and so on, and encouraged reclamation, transformed the Oder River swamp into cultivated land, and abolished serfdom in the royal territory, which accounted for one third of the country's cultivated land at that time.

At the same time, Frederick II rebuilt the Prussian Academy of Sciences, supported the development of art, and reformed the army to meet the needs of traditional territorial expansion. The standing army has increased to 200,000, ranking first in Europe in terms of population ratio.

Promulgate the national education law, implement compulsory primary education for male residents, practice religious tolerance, allow judges to judge independently, and formulate a unified code to make Prussia a powerful country.

1762, yekaterina usurped the throne of her husband Peter III through a palace coup. In his thirty-four years in office, he claimed to be an enlightened monarch, promoted the reform of Peter I, emphasized agricultural production, placed new immigrants in the newly conquered open space in the south, and encouraged industrial and commercial development. During his reign, handicraft workshops more than doubled, reaching more than 1000. In business, he began to gradually give up the state-controlled mercantilism and began to tolerate trade freedom. Politically, in the early days of his administration, he announced that he would carry out enlightenment reform, convene a legislative committee, and issue an "instruction" citing the remarks of enlightenment thinkers as the legislative basis. Later, some codes compiled on this basis restricted torture and supported religious tolerance to some extent.

1772, the Pugachev Uprising broke out in Russia. Pugachev is a poor Cossack on the Don River. He called himself Peter III, launched a peasant uprising, issued a proclamation, announced the liberation of serfs, distributed land and punished nobles. After the uprising was suppressed, yekaterina decided to carry out local administrative reform, reset provinces and counties, hold provincial and county aristocratic meetings on a regular basis, and elect officials below the governor, so that the nobles could completely control local administration.

The birth of the Enlightenment is also closely related to the development of natural science. With the development of natural science, enlightenment thinkers have gained theoretical basis and thinking methods.

The core of the Enlightenment: rationalism. By attacking the church, advocating knowledge, advocating and spreading science, and criticizing obscurantism, enlightenment thinkers stripped off the "sacred" coat of feudal system and liberated people with rational thinking and judgment. Deny the divine right of monarchy, demonstrate the natural human rights, put forward the theory of "natural state" and the origin of state, boldly expose the darkness of feudal system, clarify that political equality and state institutions, the whole and the legal system meet the requirements and propositions of capitalist development trend, and outline the basic principles for establishing a capitalist society.

A representative figure of enlightenment thought

Hobbes: British enlightenment thinker, Bacon's secretary, 1640 took refuge in France and became a math teacher in charles ii. 1642, he published an article in the theory of citizenship, expounding the theory of natural rights and criticizing religious theology. 1650, Hobbes' paper on regime came out, and the following year, he published his masterpiece Leviathan. It was established by the people and opposed to the theocracy of the monarch. However, it believed that absolute monarchy was the best form of state organization, categorically denied the people's freedom and democratic rights, and advocated that the state originated from the contract in the natural state.

Hobbes assumed a natural state, that is, the theory of natural state. He believes that before the founding of the People's Republic of China, human beings lived in a natural state, and people had equal natural rights, not only equality, but also freedom for everyone. However, people's selfish nature of seeking advantages and avoiding disadvantages is full of war. Therefore, people take the precepts of natural law as a guide to action in order to get rid of the state of war and establish a country.

John Locke is an English philosopher, thinker and politician. Received a master's degree from Oxford University on 1658. His philosophical work, 1690, took 20 years to be published, which set the tone for the Enlightenment. 1689 to 1990, he wrote two government papers, which are Locke's most important political papers, expounding liberal political theory and promoting natural human rights. This is a comprehensive clean-up and summary of various ideological trends of the British revolution in the17th century. Locke takes the social contract theory as the foundation of the country, thinks that the mixed form of the state and the parliamentary monarchy are the best forms of state power, and advocates the separation of powers.

Voltaire was a French enlightenment thinker, who became famous for publishing King Oedipus in 17 18. From then on, he took Voltaire as his pen name and was elected as an academician of the French Academy in 1746. He believes in the theory of natural rights, holds that people are equal in essence, requires everyone to enjoy natural rights, advocates equality before the law, and advocates an enlightened monarch. His main work, Newton's Philosophy,

Montesquieu entered the University of Bordeaux to study law in 1705, and inherited the titles of uncle and baron in 17 16, and served as the president of the Bordeaux High Court. He entered the French Academy of Sciences on 1728, and advocated the separation of the three powers, that is, the separation of the legislative power, the executive power and the judicial power of the state, so that they can check and balance each other and the freedom of citizens can be guaranteed. This theory became an anti-feudal theory.

On the Spirit of Law: The book is divided into three volumes. The first volume is mainly about the overview of law and the relationship between law and regime. The second volume discusses the relationship between law and political power. The third volume discusses the relationship between law and geographical environment. The book puts forward the theory of pursuing freedom, advocating the rule of law and implementing decentralization, which has had a great influence on the bourgeois revolution around the world.

On the reasons for the rise and fall of Rome: Montesquieu expounded his social theory. According to his historiography, the rise and fall of ancient Rome was determined by the advantages and disadvantages of its political system and the good and evil of its residents' customs. Montesquieu, like all bourgeois enlighteners, was idealistic in his view of history, but his social thought played a positive role in the struggle against feudalism and imperialism at that time.

The basic feature of Rousseau's thought is naturalism, which holds that human beings build a country through a social contract, so national sovereignty belongs to all people born equal. If the ruler destroys the social contract, the people have the right to overthrow it through violent revolution and establish a new social contract. Napoleon commented that "without Rousseau, there would be no French Revolution", which shows the great influence of his thoughts on the practice of the French Revolution. His major works include The Origin and Basis of Human Inequality, On Social Contract, Emile, Confessions and so on.

175 1 year, an encyclopedia was compiled under the auspices of Diderot, and as many as 160 people participated in the compilation, including Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. The book opposes the fallacy of religious theology with scientific achievements, opposes authoritarian rule with democratic ideas, and promotes rationalism, humanism and materialism. The author who participated in the compilation was honored as the "Encyclopedia School".

/kloc-in the 0/8th century, a classical school of political economy appeared in France, namely the physiocratic school, represented by Quesnay and Turgut. Quesnay published "Economic Table" in 1758, which systematically expressed the theory of physiocracy. He believed that capitalists should be encouraged to rent land from landlords in order to develop capitalist agriculture, and the government should implement a "laissez-faire policy", allow free competition and trade, and only levy taxes on landlords.

British classical political economy is an economic thought that reflects the interests of British bourgeoisie from the middle of17th century to the early 1930s, represented by Adam Smith and david ricardo.

Adam Smith 1723 was born in England, 1737- 1746 studied at Glasgow University and Oxford University successively, 1767 was elected as a member of the Royal Society, and 1776 published The Wealth of Nations, which became the first book.

David ricardo's representative work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" mainly contributed to the principles of land rent and value theory. He believes that land rent is a part of the value created by laborers and a transformation form of excess profits in agriculture. In the value theory, he divided the value of goods into use value and exchange value, and thought that the amount of labor determined the value, and the value was directly proportional to the amount of labor and inversely proportional to the labor productivity. Ricardo also put forward the theory of money quantity by improving labor productivity and reducing commodity prices.

Politically, France is the most stubborn and reactionary feudal fortress in European countries and a typical feudal system. The contradiction between the third class and the privileged class in French society is particularly acute, and the crisis of feudal system is unprecedented, which provides a social foundation for the emergence of the Enlightenment.

Economically, the development of French capitalist economy and the growing strength of the emerging bourgeoisie have formed a group of new class representatives with both economic strength and cultural education, which provided a class foundation for the rise of the Enlightenment.

Ideologically, the stubbornness and madness of the church forced the thinkers of the new class to abandon their religious cloaks and devote themselves to open and rational propaganda. The rise of modern science and the success of the British revolution provided scientific basis and theoretical and practical experience for the rise of the Enlightenment, thus making the French Enlightenment the center of Europe.

The Enlightenment is the second ideological emancipation movement in Europe after the Renaissance, which ideologically impacted the feudal system, the autocratic system and the spiritual pillar of the Catholic Church. It provided ideological and theoretical preparation for the bourgeois revolution and played a huge role in promoting it. Thinkers and their representative works emerged in the Enlightenment, which laid the ideological foundation for the American War of Independence, the French Revolution and the subsequent European Revolution. If the Renaissance opposed Catholic theology and pursued secular happiness, then the Enlightenment opposed feudal autocracy and pursued freedom and equality.