What issues have been studied and discussed in the reform of secondary education in the United States?

In the late 1950s, the successful launch of the former Soviet Union’s first artificial satellite not only stimulated technological competition among the world’s powers, but also triggered a large-scale educational reform movement worldwide. Amid fierce competition and frequent reforms, the education reform in the United States is particularly eye-catching and has had a wide-ranging impact on various countries. If we carefully examine the development context of contemporary American education and its characteristics, it is not difficult to find that although American education since the Second World War has only experienced more than half a century, the reform cycle has changed. The speed of reform and the huge changes in the content of reforms have never happened in any period in American history. Some of these reform plans or reform proposals and their implementation strategies often present parallel developments and are contradictory in some aspects. It is also these reforms that promote the scientific and humanistic process of American education. In line with the principle of "making foreign things suitable for China", investigating and analyzing the development and changes of contemporary American educational reform and its outstanding characteristics will undoubtedly provide some inspiration for the deepening and path selection of my country's educational reform and development in the new century.

The first wave of reform: the "new curriculum" movement

In the history of American educational development, educational reform has never stopped. Moreover, after entering the 1950s, the reform cycle continued to accelerate. Examining the reasons, the main reason is that the history of the United States itself is a history of reform. As Joppliman and James Van Patten put it: "American history, from the regimes of Kennedy and Johnson to the regimes of Reagan, Bush, and Clinton, has been shaped by social reform movements." 241 Along with the country's political and economic reforms, educational reforms are also coming one after another. Examining the education reform movement in the United States since World War II, it is not difficult to find that the first major wave of contemporary American education reform kicked off with the successful launch of the first artificial satellite of the former Soviet Union. In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the first artificial earth satellite, which shocked the U.S. government. The public focused on the quality of education in public schools, blaming the U.S.'s backward aerospace technology for the decline in school education quality. It is further believed that this is the result of progressive education neglecting the basics and system and lowering academic standards. As Professor Dany Lividge describes in the book "American Education at the Crossroads: 1954-1980": "Government officials have repeatedly expressed concern about the lack of research talent in science and technology fields. In addition, they have criticized progressivism Education neglects basic academic subjects - English, history, natural sciences, mathematics and foreign languages... The launch of Sputnik is a sign of the different results of pursuing high standards... The launch of Sputnik is not because of how advanced Russia is , and it is precisely because of the backwardness of the United States." 208 As a result, the U.S. government quickly closely linked national defense construction with education, and promulgated the National Defense Education Act in 1958, establishing a new teaching system aimed at cultivating high-tech talents. The bill allocates special funds to fund research and reform of the three "new three arts" courses of science, mathematics and modern foreign languages; provide relevant teaching facilities; promote guidance, consultation and testing programs, with special emphasis on discovering and cultivating gifted children. 158 Soon, new mathematics, new chemistry, and other new revisions were introduced into school teaching, and summer schools provided teachers with training in new textbooks and new teaching methods. Since then, scholars have further reminded people to fully understand: "Education is our first line of defense." 208 As Justus-Warren pointed out in the Supreme Court recommendation: "Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Legislation of compulsory education and large investments in education can illustrate that we It has been recognized how important education is to a democratic society." 209

The Second Wave of Reform: The Movement to Promote Equal Educational Opportunities

The second wave of contemporary American education reform. It began in the mid-1960s with the civil rights movement. The main goal of the reform is to promote equality of educational opportunities. On May 27, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected the so-called "equal status although separate" argument that had been considered correct since 1850 to theoretically exclude blacks from white schools. and decided to desegregate schools. However, the Supreme Court's decision did not have immediate repercussions and effects in segregated schools.

Although the Supreme Court ordered a year later to speed up school desegregation, many school districts still opposed black children attending schools with white children. Some schools have even become "battlefields" to resist the Supreme Court's decision and insist on segregation. As Joe Spring said: "Although the Supreme Court and the federal government have been emphasizing their opposition to school segregation, segregation in schools still exists. Although some schools have implemented the same school system for children of different races, the fact is that Different approaches are still adopted in terms of subject learning and school activities”119

In addition to desegregation in schools, another strategy of the movement to promote equal educational opportunities is to pass legislation to heavily support disadvantaged groups. In 1965, the U.S. Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The act requires that funds be allocated based on the number of poor children in each school district to ensure that poor students have adequate learning materials by providing textbooks, equipment and materials for elementary and junior high school students. Funds are controlled by state and local governments. By 1966, this plan The total investment amounted to US$12 billion. In 1968, Congress passed another supplementary bill, the Bilingual Education Act, which mainly provided federal funding for low-income children with poor English proficiency. The bill does not elaborate on what bilingual education means but explains that it provides funds to local school districts to develop and implement new, desirable elementary and secondary school programs that meet the needs of students from non-English speaking backgrounds. 210 Throughout the 1960s, social reformists were prominent in calling for curriculum reform. They advocate a curriculum that prepares minorities and the poor for more equal participation in socioeconomic life. In their view, the main purpose of education became the eradication of poverty and racial discrimination, and discussions of new science and mathematics classes gave way to proposals for compensatory education and basic courses. These curricular changes provide poor children with equal access to education to promote the development of their basic skills 216-217

The third wave of reform: the "restoring the basics" movement

In the 1970s, lasting peace in the world had not yet been achieved. The credibility of the U.S. government continued to decline after the Watergate incident. Inflation and economic recession increased uncertainty in the future labor market. During these 10 years, many educational problems have emerged in the United States, such as declining enrollment, declining test scores, reduced public trust, and changes in progressive policies that promote equal education for all. Among them, the continued decline in academic ability test scores is considered to be a sign of many serious problems in education. People are beginning to rethink how to educate children to cope with the energy crisis, urban congestion, rising crime and a changing labor market. There was a view at the time that schools and educators should be held accountable for their actions and responsible for developing competent and adaptable students. Parents, citizen groups, and politicians dissatisfied with the low academic performance of many students have joined forces to launch the Restoration and Teacher Accountability Movements. The 211 movement attaches great importance to the teaching of basic knowledge and basic skills, calling for the reduction of elective courses, the increase of compulsory courses, and the restoration of the leading role of teachers. The Back to Basics movement emphasizes reading, writing, mathematics, and students' oral communication. 408

In the 1970s, promoting equal educational opportunities was still an important task in American education reform. The federal bill brings success and inspiration to those on the margins of the education system. In 1972, Congress passed the Education Amendment Act prohibiting sex discrimination. In 1975, President Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act to ensure the right of children with disabilities to receive free and appropriate education. 213

The Fourth Wave of Reform: School Reconstruction Movement

In the 1980s, American society began to transform from an industrial society to an information society, and industrial production labor changed from labor-intensive to knowledge-intensive Transformation, improving the quality of education and the scientific and cultural level of citizens have become the urgent requirements of the times. In recent years, the decline in SAT scores of American students and the high illiteracy rate among people under the age of 17 have aroused concern and attention from all walks of life. In April 1983, the National Commission on Quality Education issued the report "A Nation at Risk: Educational Reform Is Imperative", and American society once again launched a school reconstruction movement similar in nature to "restoring the basics". Reconstruction "means changes in rules, roles, and systems of relationships so that the school more effectively serves existing purposes or together serves new purposes."

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In 1983, Ernst Bauer's recommendations for strengthening high school academic courses in "High School: A Report on American Secondary Education" written for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching were widely adopted. At the end of 1987, Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education William Bennett proposed establishing rigorous academic core courses for all high school students. At this time, high school curriculum excellence reached a climax. In the U.S. Department of Education brochure "James Madsen High School: A Curriculum for America's Students," Bennett describes an ideal high school curriculum: English, mathematics, science, social studies, foreign languages, nature, and a Semester History of Art and Music. 25% of the course plans are available to students. As Ademiro-Rikov points out, “The ideal of a true liberal education based on the 3Rs, which can forge fluent oral expression and clear written expression, must return. Forced academic courses must give choice priority". 415

These countries swept across the United States in the 1980s and had a lasting and profound impact on American education. Many of the recommendations in the report have been implemented or have been heatedly discussed in local organizations. School committees, principals, teachers, the public, etc. are eagerly paying attention to this reform. It can be said that "A Nation at Risk" and other similar advertisements in the 1980s guided the education reform movement of this era. During this movement, states set higher graduation requirements, unified curriculum management, increased assessments for both teachers and students, and raised qualification requirements for teachers. School districts across the country have increased their emphasis on computer literacy, homework and basic skills; established minimum standards for sports participation; and extended school days and the length of the school year. 167

The fifth wave of reform: Educational choice and the national standards movement

The fifth wave of American education reform was launched with the release of the "2000 Education Goals". Its focus is on emphasizing national standards for education. As we all know, the United States has never had a unified national education system or a unified national curriculum. The educational goals and standards proposed by relevant national departments or institutions have not been universally recognized and valued in practice, and they cannot have any practical effect at all. For guidance, each state has its own requirements, and each school has its own practices. By the 1990s, the uneven quality of education had become a prominent problem in American education. In 1991 and 1993, the Bush administration and the Clinton administration respectively released the programmatic documents "America 2000: Education Strategy" and "Goals 2000: The American Education Act" to guide the entire American education reform. The clarion call for national unification of standards. "Goals 2000" continues to confirm the six "national education goals" set by the Bush administration, but the third goal has caused greater controversy. The new third objective encourages many professional organizations to identify standards and methods for evaluation. At the same time, it increases the rigor of learning in fourth, eighth, and 11th grade, and the higher standards it imposes also affect the levels of each grade. In terms of content standards, in addition to emphasizing knowledge, it also emphasizes the application of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. And the agencies that establish these standards are professional organizations like the National Science Teachers Association and the National Council for the Social Studies. In addition, the U.S. Department of Education provides financial support to professional groups and agencies that develop standards. 272 The national standards movement is an example of the U.S. government's involvement in shaping educational institutions, particularly its impact on what is taught, how it is taught, what is learned, and how it is evaluated. 273 However, while the Goals 2000: American Education Act attracted widespread discussion and attention across the country, not everyone was in favor. Some believe the targets enhance the national curriculum and represent too much government "intrusion" into education. Controversy persisted, but at the same time, all states except Virginia and New Hampshire chose to accept Goal 2000 federal funding to establish challenging curriculum content and performance standards. 272

In the 1990s, although the academic ability test scores of American students gradually stabilized, the education reform and school reconstruction movements did not stop. People began to emphasize cultural diversity, and the federal government was establishing unity. Along with national standards, encouraging school choice became a prominent feature of the education reform in the 1990s. In 1990, President Bush explicitly supported the new educational practice of school choice in the "America 2000" Act.

Specifically, parents have the right to choose a suitable private school or public school for their students based on their interests and the teaching conditions of each school, without being restricted by the location of the student's home. The state government pays students' tuition fees directly to their chosen schools or parents in the form of vouchers. This method of allocating funds through vouchers provides parents with backing support for school choice, promotes equality of educational opportunities and competition among schools. However, this choice has a market value orientation, which has impacted the education system based on public education in the United States and has also caused great controversy. 286

The Sixth Wave of Reform: Movement to Integrate School Education with Work Needs

As early as the late 1990s, the sixth wave of education reform had begun to take shape. The basic point of the reform at that time was to redesign school education within the needs and conditions of the workplace. Educational goals of the campaign include a smooth transition from school to the workplace, information technology training, and a curriculum that emphasizes critical thinking, problem solving, decision-making, teamwork, and the skills employers believe employees of today and tomorrow should have. aspect. 29 In the United States, parents, communities, and businesses are becoming increasingly direct and widespread in their participation in education. While participating in education, they have also placed higher demands on education. For all students, it is no longer enough to master basic skills such as reading, writing and calculation. Skills such as learning to learn, creative thinking, individualized thinking, self-management, goal setting, employability, interpersonal coordination, and group cooperation are increasingly important. important. These skills reflect the changing needs of social work and the requirements for students' professional development. A number of emerging trends have provided persuasive arguments for expanding school curricula and making vocational education programs part of general education, with the aim of making vocational education accessible to all students and not just to those in the workforce. Schools need to change curriculum structures to reflect technological changes at work. Because technology, group work performance, cooperative learning, the application of cross-disciplinary rather than single-disciplinary concepts and techniques to solve real problems have been placed in an important position, and new interpersonal skills will be needed in the next 10 years. Therefore, school curricula and teaching practices need to emphasize the diversity of communication forms, whether verbal or non-verbal. 561 On January 14, 2005, President Bush publicly emphasized the need to do more to prepare high school students for their futures. He believes in education to ensure that every high school graduate has the skills needed to succeed in college and in the globally competitive workplace.