What are the basic concepts in psychology such as effects and phenomena?

1. Wallach Effect Otto Wallach is the winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and his successful process is legendary. When Wallach started middle school, his parents chose a literary path for him. Unexpectedly, one semester later, the teacher wrote this comment for him: "Wallach is very diligent. But he is too rigid and it is difficult to cultivate literary talents." ." Later, his parents asked him to study oil painting, but Wallach was neither good at composition nor retouching, and his grades were last in the class. Faced with such a "stupid" student, most teachers thought that he was promising. Only the chemistry teacher believed that he was meticulous and had the qualities to do chemical experiments, and suggested that he study chemistry. At this time, Wallach's spark of wisdom was suddenly ignited. , finally succeeded. Wallach's success illustrates the truth: students' intellectual development is unbalanced, and they all have strong points and weaknesses in intelligence. Once they find the best point to develop their intelligence and fully develop their intelligence, they can gain Amazing scores. Ancient people called this phenomenon the "Wallach effect."

2. Threshold effect

The so-called threshold effect means that after a person has accepted a lower level threshold, with appropriate guidance, he or she will gradually accept a higher level threshold. This effect was proposed by American social psychologists Friedman and Fraser in 1966 during a field experiment on yielding without pressure: the threshold technique.

3. *** Failure effect

There is such a scene in nature: when a plant grows alone, it appears short and monotonous, but when it grows with many similar plants, The roots are deep and the leaves are lush, full of vitality. People call this mutual influence and mutual promotion in the plant world the "epidemic failure effect." In fact, there is also a "*** failure effect" in our human community. The British "Cadive Laboratory" has produced 25 Nobel laureates from 1901 to 1982, which is an outstanding example of the "*** failure effect".

4. Stereotype effect

Social psychology believes that the influence caused by looking at nature with old eyes is called the "stereotype effect." It is a fixed and general view of people, resulting in a stereotype. This phenomenon can often be seen in schools. Teachers often show affection for students who are talented and have excellent academic scores, and they are valued and loved. Students with stupid talents and poor academic scores are often discriminated against. Teachers show patience and boredom, and often say frustrating words. Practical operations have proven that students who are often subjected to this kind of "treatment" will suddenly feel cold water pouring over them, lose their confidence in learning, lose the courage to overcome difficulties, and even become depressed.

5. Primacy effect

The primacy effect is sometimes called the effect of first impression, which refers to the impact of the first impression left by the perceived object on the perceiver on social perception. effect. To be more specific, it means that when you first come into contact with someone or something, you have a mental fixation on someone or something without emotional elements, which affects the current evaluation of that person or thing. So, we can see that this effect is detrimental to gathering the right intelligence for analysis in decision-making. Whether the first impression is good or bad, it is one-sided and is not conducive to one-sided understanding and analysis.

The effect of the first impression is called the primacy effect. It is often biased to evaluate a person's quality based on his first impression. If you rely solely on first impressions during recruitment exams and employee performance surveys, you will be deceived by certain appearances.

The primacy effect mainly manifests itself in two aspects in the recruitment process: First, judging people by their appearance. Applicants who are well-groomed and personable are likely to win the favor of the examiner. The second is to judge people by their words. Those who are silent and answer questions fluently often leave a good impression on others. Therefore, when selecting talents, we should not only listen to their words and observe their appearance, but also observe their actions and test their performance.

6. Distal effect

The distal effect refers to the fact that the recent performance of someone or something takes precedence in the mind, thus changing the consistent perception of that person or thing. view. Distal effect and primacy effect are two corresponding effects. The primary effect usually affects people in unfamiliar situations, while the remote effect usually affects people in more familiar situations. Both are objective assumptions based on one-sided understanding of people or things, distorting decision-making information.

7. Halo effect (halo effect)

The halo effect means that someone or something leaves a deep impression due to its outstanding characteristics, while ignoring other Quality of mind and behavior. It sometimes produces a "halo of positive affirmation" and sometimes a "halo of negative denial", which will interfere with the evaluation of information. To overcome the halo effect, we must remain objective and not mix objective factors.

8. Butterfly Effect

In 1960, when Lorenz, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, was studying the problem of "temporary weather forecasting", a problem arose: she used a computer to A set of simplified data is used to simulate the evolution of weather. The original intention was to use the high-speed computing of computers to improve the accuracy of weather forecasts. However, it is counterproductive, and many calculations have shown that extremely large differences in initial requirements can lead to erroneous conclusions. The same goes for psychology and mood. There is a set of cartoons that show a man who was scolded by his supervisor at work and felt very annoyed. He got angry at his wife when he got home. The wife was scolded for no reason and was also very angry, so she slammed the door and left. While walking on the street, a pet dog blocked the way and barked "woof, woof". The wife became even more angry and kicked the dog. The dog was kicked and beaten, and it ran past an old man, shocking the old man. It happened that the old man had a heart disease, and was frightened by the puppy that suddenly rushed out. He suffered a heart attack on the spot and died.

Lorenz discovered the huge contrasts caused by huge differences. She used an abstract metaphor to express this discovery. A small butterfly flaps its wings over Brazil, and the small vortex it stirs up and the The gathering of other airflows may cause a storm in Texas, USA, a month later - this is the famous "butterfly effect" in chaos theory.

In the management of human resources, if personnel management workers make flexible use of the psychological effects of personnel, they can fully mobilize the enthusiasm of their bosses or talents, so that they can be recruited according to their talents and do their best, thereby improving work efficiency. reach the optimum.

9. Rosenthal Effect

American psychologist Rosenthal inspected a certain school and randomly selected 3 students from each class and wrote 18 of them on a sheet. On the form, he handed it to the principal and said very carefully: "These 18 gentlemen have been superstitiously determined to have very high IQs." Half a year later, Luo left the school again and found that these 18 gentlemen were indeed extraordinary.

The Rosenthal effect is the roaring scene in the mind of hope. When applied to personnel management, it is necessary to invest emotion, hope and special guidance in the threshold guidance so that the boss can exert his own initiative and creativity. For example, when the leader assigns a certain task, he may as well say to the boss: "I believe you can do it well" or "I want to hear the news of your success as soon as possible." In this way, the boss will develop in the direction you expect, and the talents will also develop. Just waiting for it to happen.

10. Bell Effect

The British scholar Bell was extremely talented. Some people say that if he studies crystals and biochemistry after graduation, he will definitely win multiple Nobel Prizes. But he reluctantly took another path, proposed groundbreaking topics one after another, and guided others to reach the pinnacle of science. This move is called the Bell Effect.

The leader of the Bell Effect Threshold has the spirit of Bole and the spirit of the human ladder. He must put the unit and the individual first, recognize talents with a keen eye, let go of talents, dare to select and appoint people with better abilities than himself, and work hard to serve those who are talented. The boss creates opportunities.

11. Catfish effect

In the past, after the Norwegians caught sardines at sea, if they could get them to port alive, the purchase price would be several times higher than the dead fish, but as long as A fishing boat can bring live fish back to port. Later, people discovered that there was just one more catfish in the fish tank of the boat. It turns out that when catfish are put into the fish tank, they will swim around due to the unfamiliar environment. When sardines discover this "alien", they will also slow down their swimming due to nervousness. In this way, sardines extend their lifespan. This is the "catfish effect."

The catfish effect is used to play a competitive role in the group through the "midway intervention" of the group. It is in line with the operating mechanism of talent management. At present, the underground examination taking and competitive recruitment implemented by some government agencies are a good example. This method can make people feel a sense of crisis and work better.

12. Ocean tide effect

Seawater rises due to the gravity of celestial bodies. If the gravity is large, it will appear as a spring tide, and if the gravity is small, it will appear as a neap tide. This is the tide effect. The same is true for the relationship between talents and social times. Society needs talents, the times call for talents, and talents emerge as the times require.

For a unit, it is necessary to adjust the treatment of talents to achieve a reasonable allocation of talents, thereby increasing the unit's attraction to talents. Nowadays, more well-known companies have put forward this human resources management concept: attract people with treatment, unite people with emotion, and encourage people with career.

13. Business card effect

There was a job-seeking young man who was rejected by several units and felt very frustrated. Finally, he applied for a job in a company with a glimmer of hope. Before that, he first inquired about the history of the company's CEO. After understanding, he found that the company's CEO had similar experiences to his own in the past, so he found a treasure and started applying for the job. At that time, he talked with the boss about his job search manager and his anger at standing out. Sure enough, this speech won the boss's appreciation and sympathy, and he was eventually hired as a business manager. This is the so-called business card effect. That is to say, when two people are interacting, if you first show that you have the same attitude and values ??as the other person, it will make the other person feel that you are more similar to him, and thus quickly reduce the psychological distance between you and you, and will be more willing to work together. You get close and form good relationships. Here, the attitudes and ideas expressed towards the other party unconsciously and purposefully are like business cards that introduce you to the other party.

Using "psychological business cards" properly can promote the establishment of interpersonal relationships as soon as possible, but in order for "psychological business cards" to play their due role, first of all, one must be good at capturing the other party's information and grasp the true attitude , look for positive concepts that you can accept, and "create" an effective "psychological business card." Secondly, look for opportunities and "show" your "psychological business card" to the other party appropriately, so that you can achieve your goal. Mastering the art of using "mental business cards" is of great practical value for interpersonal communication, memory and interpersonal relationship management.

14. Opposite-sex effect

Ms. Li is the public relations manager of a company. She has extensive contacts, is sure to win every class, and has made great achievements for the company. The company was in dire need of raw materials, and the comrades in the information department were running around but were met with obstacles one after another. While Ms. Li went out to make contacts, the problem was soon solved. The company's capital turnover was seriously out of whack and it was in urgent need of deposits. The general manager was as anxious as an ant on a hot pot. It was Ms. Li who was busy with her career, dealing with banks, and actually obtained a deposit worth millions of dollars. As a result, Ms. Li received much attention from the leadership, and her salary and bonuses increased. Someone tried to summarize the secret of Ms. Li's success and found that in addition to her clear mind, agile eloquence, rich knowledge and experience, and her sensitivity in dealing with people, it also had a lot to do with her dignified appearance and elegant appearance.

In daily life, we can often see male salespersons receiving female customers, who are generally more enthusiastic than receiving male customers. The main reason for the above-mentioned Ms. Li's success is that today's society is still a society in which men have a great advantage. When going out to work, few people have to deal with men. It is easier for women to take the initiative. This is the so-called "opposite-sex effect" in psychology. . This phenomenon is based on the attraction of the opposite sex. People are generally more interested in the opposite sex, especially those who have a pleasant appearance and good manners. Women are no exception to this, but they are not as good as men. So obvious to women. Sometimes, in order to attract the attention of the opposite sex, men also like to express themselves in front of women. This is also the "opposite sex effect" at work. However, the "opposite sex effect" cannot be abused if women are beautiful and lovable. It is normal to have good relationships with the opposite sex and it is easier to do things in front of the opposite sex; on the contrary, it would be unethical for men to use color to seduce others in order to achieve a certain purpose. Men should be more enthusiastic and polite towards the opposite sex, especially older and beautiful ones. There is nothing wrong with this, but using the opposite sex as a comfort, fantasizing, and making people feel "lustful" exceeds the limit. Therefore, you must control the "temperature" in contact with the opposite sex.

15. Diffusion of Responsibility Effect

At 3:20 on the night of March 13, 1964, in front of an apartment in the suburbs of New York, the United States, an old man named Juno Bibai stood up. He was assassinated on his way home from a barroom assignment. When she shouted in despair: "Someone is going to kill someone! Help! Help!" Hearing the cry, nearby residents turned on their lights and opened their windows, and the murderer ran away in fear. When everything returned to calm, the murderer went to commit crimes again. When she shouted again, the nearby residents turned on the lights again, and the murderer escaped again. When she thought nothing had happened and returned to her home and went upstairs, the murderer appeared in front of her again and killed her on the stairs.

During this process, although she shouted for help; at least 38 of her neighbors came to the window to watch, but no one came to save her, or even called the police. This incident caused a sensation in New York society, and also attracted the attention and consideration of social psychology workers. This phenomenon of so many bystanders doing nothing to save people is called the diffusion of responsibility effect.

As to the causes of the diffusion of responsibility effect, psychologists have conducted a large number of experiments and investigations, and found that this phenomenon cannot just be said to be a manifestation of people's indifference or increasing moral decay. Because in different places, people's assistance behavior is indeed different. When a person encounters an emergency situation, if he is the only one who can provide help, he will clearly understand his responsibility and help the victims. If he refuses to save his life, he will feel guilt and guilt, which will require a high psychological cost. And if there are many people present, the responsibility of assisting the caller will be shared by everyone, resulting in a dispersion of responsibilities. Each person has very little responsibility, and the bystander may not even realize his own share of the responsibility, resulting in A kind of mentality of "I won't save, others will save" creates a scene of "personal indifference". How to break this situation is an important topic that psychologists are studying.

16. The Jensen Effect

There is an athlete named Jensen. He is usually well-trained and strong, but he wins continuously in sports. People use this to call the phenomenon of good performance but failure in the arena due to lack of proper psychological quality called the Jensen effect.

In daily life, for some, the only explanation between "strong strength" and "mistakes on the field" can only be psychological quality problems, and the main reason is caused by excessive focus on gains and losses and lack of self-confidence. Some People usually have "a lot of achievements", stand out, and have many stars supporting the moon, forming a mentality: they can only succeed but not fail. In addition, the special nature of the competition field, high expectations from society, country, family, etc., make them worry about gains and losses. The psychology is aggravated, the psychological burden is too heavy, and such intense psychological gains and losses trouble me, how can I perform to my due level? On the other hand, I lack self-confidence and have stage fright, which limits the development of my potential.

< p>How to get out of the "Jensen Effect" cycle? First of all, we must clearly understand the purpose of the "playing field" and restrain our fear. The playing field is not scary, it is just more normal than usual. Secondly, we must calmly get out of the narrow worry about gains and losses. Shadow does not pursue success, but only strives to develop his own level normally. The competition field is a high-level competition, and it is also often a competition of psychological quality. "The brave man wins when the road is narrow." As long as you build up your self-confidence, your hard work will definitely pay off. Harvest. You will get a satisfactory answer in the end.

17. "Sour Grapes" Psychology and "Sweet Lemon" Psychology It is not good to say that something is "sour" if it is not available. This method can relieve some of our pressure. For example: someone else has a good thing, but I don't have it. I want it very much, but in fact I can't get it. . At this time, you might as well use the "sour grapes" mentality, try to find the bad things about that thing in your heart, say "good things" about it, and overcome your unreasonable needs.

The "sweet lemon" mentality is. I think my own lemons are sweet. "Sweet lemon" means that what I have and can't get rid of is good. We must learn to accept ourselves. Everyone has his own strengths and advantages, and everyone has his own. Don’t casually say that you are not good or that you are not as good as others due to your own characteristics. You might as well try “Sweet Lemon” psychology to learn to accept yourself and gradually enhance your self-confidence.

18. “South Wind Effect”

p>

The French writer La Fontaine once wrote a fable about the power of the north wind and the south wind to see who can take off the coat on the pedestrians. In order to resist the invasion of the north wind, the pedestrians wrapped their coats tightly. The south wind was blowing slowly, and the wind became brighter. The pedestrians felt very warm, so they began to unbutton and then took off their coats, but the consequences were very serious. Obviously, the south wind has succeeded. This is the origin of the social psychology concept of the "south wind effect". . North wind and south wind both cause pedestrians to take off their coats, but due to different methods, the consequences are quite different.

For example: some classmates are very fierce and strong when they are with others. Once or twice, it may be because you are very fierce and want others to be strong, and you have the upper hand, but soon you will find that you have lost your friends. We can also see that when conflicts occur with others and each side refuses to give in, in the end it is often the best of both worlds. Think about it if the two of them follow the "Southern Wind" and talk calmly, will the consequences be much better?

19. The Barnum Effect in Psychology

A friend once asked me what was the most difficult thing in the world. I said making money is the hardest, and he shook his head. Goldbach's guess? He shook his head again. I said I would keep it, please let me know. He said mysteriously that you know yourself. Indeed, thoughtful philosophers have said so.

Who am I, where do I come from, and where am I going? These questions have been asked by people since ancient Greece, but they have not come to satisfactory results.

However, even so, people have never stopped following themselves.

Because of this, people are often lost in themselves, are easily prompted by the information around them, and use the words and deeds of others as a reference for their own actions. Herd mentality is a typical proof.

In fact, people are influenced and hinted by others all the time in their lives. For example, on a bus, you will find this situation: a person opens his mouth wide and yawns, and there will be several people around him who can't help but yawn as well. Some people don't yawn because they are less suggestible. Who are highly suggestible? It can be reflected through a simple test.

Ask one person to hold out their hands horizontally, palms facing up, and close their eyes. Tell him that a hydrogen balloon is now tied to his left hand, and it floats upward from time to time; a big stone is tied to his right hand, and it falls downward. After three minutes, look at the distance between his hands. The larger the distance, the stronger the suggestion.

Understanding oneself, called self-awareness in psychology, is the process of a person understanding oneself. In this process, people are more susceptible to cues from external information, thus showing a bias in self-perception.

In daily life, people can neither reflect on themselves all the time, nor can they always put themselves in the position of an outsider to observe themselves. Because of this, individuals rely on outside information to understand themselves. When individuals perceive themselves, they are easily influenced by external information and often fail to perceive themselves correctly.

Psychological research suggests that it is easy for people to believe that an abstract, general personality description is particularly suitable for them. Even though this description is very vague, he still thinks it reflects his personality. Some psychologists once asked college students to judge whether it is suitable for them with a general statement that can be applied to almost everyone. As a result, the vast majority of college students thought that this statement described themselves in a nuanced and accurate way. The above paragraph is information used by psychologists. Do you think it is also suitable for you?

You need others to like and respect you. You have a tendency to be self-critical. You have many untapped talents that can be used to your advantage, and you also have some flaws, but you can usually overcome them. You have some difficulty interacting with the opposite sex. Although you appear calm on the surface, you are actually anxious and restless on the inside. You sometimes doubt whether the decisions you make or the things you do are correct. You like some changes in your life and hate being restricted. You pride yourself on being able to think independently, and you will not accept other people's suggestions without sufficient evidence. You think it would be unwise to reveal yourself too openly in front of others. Sometimes you are introverted, affectionate, and sociable, and sometimes you are extroverted, cautious, and reserved. Some of your ambitions are often far from ideal.

This is actually a hat that fits anyone’s head.

A famous acrobat named Shawman Barnum said when evaluating his performance that he was very popular because the show contained elements that everyone liked, so he As a result, "someone is being deceived every minute." People often think that an abstract and general personality description reflects their own characteristics very accurately. In psychology, this tendency is called the "Barnum effect."

After a psychologist completed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) for a group of people, he took out two results and asked the participants to determine which one was their own. In fact, one is the result of the participant himself, and the other is the result of the average responses of a small number of people. Participants actually felt that the latter more accurately expressed their personality traits.

The Barnum effect is very common in life.

Take fortune telling as an example. After consulting a fortune teller, most people think that the fortune teller's predictions are "very accurate". In fact, those who seek help from fortune tellers themselves are susceptible to suggestion. When people's emotions are high and frustrated, they lose a sense of control over their lives, and therefore their sense of security is also affected. A person who lacks a sense of security will become more psychologically dependent and more suggestible than usual. In addition, fortune tellers are good at figuring out people's inner feelings and can slightly understand the feelings of the seeker. The seeker will immediately feel a kind of physical comfort. The fortune teller will then say something ordinary and about pain, which will make the seeker suspicious.

20. The Peggy Effect

In some TV programs, some people have done so-called strange memory performances. Usually, a blackboard is set up on the stage, and then the audience is asked to randomly say some words, numbers, program titles, formulas, foreign language words, etc., and write them on the blackboard in order. The actor does not look at the blackboard during this process, but he can accurately tell any one of the contents according to the audience's threshold, and can even recite the entire contents backwards.

This kind of performance looks very magical, but in fact it is just the use of Peige memory technology, resulting in the "Peige effect". This method is actually not difficult. It is to create a set of memory codes, for example, ⑴——hat, ⑵——glasses, ⑶——scarf, ⑷——clothes, ⑸——belt, ⑹——pants... ...and memorize it skillfully, and then connect it with the information to be memorized through association. For example, for threshold, you remember the following words: ⑴ elephant, ⑵ cheer up, ⑶ bathe, ⑷ electric fan, ⑸ bicycle, ⑹ water... In this way, you can associate the elephant with the fixed-coded No. 1 hat and associate it. Put a hat on the elephant's trunk. To remember the sixth word "water", associate it with pants - water makes the pants wet.

After such coding association, it is not difficult to remember. Because when associating, we unconsciously reduce the size of the associated things, the representation is clear and strange. For example, remember the fourth word - when the electric fan is associated with clothes, it would be normal if it appeared that the electric fan was blowing away the clothes, but if it was imagined that the electric fan was wearing a down jacket, it would be very strange and even more special. Make it easy to remember this object.

There are more types of fixed codes in Pego's mnemonics, such as numbering according to the upper and lower parts of the person's body, numbering according to the things that can be seen after entering the door, numbering according to the names of one's relatives and friends, etc.

If we master this method during the learning process, we can avoid the monotony of memory and make it interesting. Of course, mastering this method does not happen overnight. It requires us to practice regularly and make our associations as unique, eye-catching and extraordinary as possible.

21. Transfer effect

In learning psychology, the impact of prior learning on subsequent learning is called the "transfer effect". It has three effects:

The effect of prior learning A promotes subsequent learning B is called a positive effect; the effect of prior learning A disturbing and hindering subsequent learning B is called a negative effect; prior learning A It promotes subsequent learning B without any impact, which is called zero effect.

In daily life and study, if you do not pay attention to the requirements for migration requirements, unnecessary migration phenomena will occur. For example, Japanese drivers often have difficulties driving in the United States and even have car accidents. This time it is mainly because in Japan, "cars are on the left and people are on the right", while in the United States it is just the opposite. Of course, if the migration effect is used well, the above effects can be produced. For example, selecting golf training players from among the baseball players; allowing people who can speak English to suddenly learn French, German, and Spanish will generally achieve more ideal results.

The implications of this practice for learning are:

First, we must pay attention to discover the contradictions and similarities between concepts and principles.

The second is to pay attention to the summary of learning methods, that is, pay attention to mastering those regular methods of solving problems in the learning process.

The third is to accumulate learning experience in all aspects.

Fourth, we must pay attention to avoid stereotypes in the learning process, especially in the process of solving problems.

22. Reaction effect

Reaction is originally a concept in physics, which refers to sending part of the energy in the input circuit of the amplifier back to the output circuit to enhance or The effect of weakening the output signal.

Psychology borrows this concept to clarify learners' understanding of their own learning results, and this understanding of the results plays a strengthening role, prompting learners to study harder, thereby improving learning efficiency. These two psychological phenomena are called "reaction effects".

The above is a famous psychological experiment on reaction effect:

Psychologists Rossi and Henry divided a class of students into three groups and tested them after studying every day. The experimenter notified the first group of students about the results of their studies every day, the second group of students only informed them once a week, and the third group was not notified even once. Teaching stopped like this for 8 weeks. Then the method was changed, the first group and the third group were swapped, the second group remained unchanged, and the same 8 weeks of teaching were conducted. As a result, in addition to the steady progress of the second group, which continued to make normal progress, the situation of the first and third groups changed greatly: that is, the academic scores of the first group gradually decreased, while the scores of the third group suddenly increased. . This shows that knowing your learning results in real time plays a very important role in promoting learning. And the immediate response is more effective than the distant response.

Psychologist Brown’s experiments show that different response methods have different effects on learning. Generally speaking, students' own positive feedback is better than the teacher's feedback. The inspiration this gives us is:

First, during the learning process, we must conduct self-reflections in a timely manner to avoid purposeless learning and learning methods that do not know the results of our own learning.

The second is to pay attention to the teacher's comments on homework or test papers, and carefully summarize the strengths and weaknesses in one's own learning, so as to understand the direction of one's efforts.

The third is to treat your academic scores correctly. Don’t be proud when you get high scores, but continue to work hard; don’t lose confidence when your scores are not satisfactory, and be determined to catch up.

23. Matthew Effect

The term "Matthew Effect" was proposed by American scientist Robert Merton. He used this to summarize such a social phenomenon - more and more honors are given to scientists who are already quite famous for their contributions, while those scientists who are not yet well-known are unwilling to admit their scores. .

24. Bucket Effect

The capacity of a wooden bucket is determined by the shortest piece of wood, so in a team or group, the disadvantage of the inferior is extremely harmful. This is what people often call the "bucket effect."