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The reason and process of the alliance between the late Qing government and Russia;

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and treaty of shimonoseki, the mainstream understanding of Japanese policy by the Qing government gradually changed to "alliance with Russia to resist Japan". Because Russia jumped out to help get the Liaodong Peninsula back at the most difficult time of the Qing Empire. In addition, the Qing government also wanted to use Russia to contain Japan. Among them, Liu Kunyi, Governor of Liangjiang, put it most clearly: "Japan is the country that poses the greatest threat to the Great Qing Dynasty, and Japan's ambition to occupy the Northeast has been accumulated for a long time, while Russia is the last to do so, because it borders the Northeast of the Great Qing Dynasty. So,' If I take this opportunity to make friends with them, support each other and make it cheaper, Russia and Pierer will follow me'. "

Japan cut Liaodong Peninsula through treaty of shimonoseki, which invaded the place that Tsarist Russia was going to seize, and Russia joined forces with France and Germany to intervene. At that time, although Japan dominated the East, it did not dare to compete with the three western powers, so it had to agree to cede Liaodong Peninsula, but China had to pay a huge ransom for it. 1895 10 14 In June, the Qing government took Li Hongzhang as the "plenipotentiary for the return of Liao Brigade" and negotiated with Quanzhu Lin, the Japanese plenipotentiary in Beijing. 1October 8th, 165438+ finally agreed to sign the contract, and China paid 30 million taels of silver to "redeem" Liaodong Peninsula. In this way, in the eyes of the Qing government, Russia simply became a "savior" and was regarded as a "benefactor".

65438+In the early 1990s, Russia began to build the trans-siberian railway across Europe and Asia, from Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east, in an attempt to gain greater advantages in the Far East than other European countries and control all international commercial activities in the Pacific waters. 1894, the Siberian railway was built in the outer Baikal region. With regard to the direction of the railway, the Tsar approved the plan of crossing the northeast of China proposed by Finance Minister Victor, because it can not only shorten the distance, save money and speed up the progress; But also conducive to the military, political and economic expansion of China and the Far East. Once the plan is determined, we will start to implement it. 1In June and July of 895, Russia sent personnel to the northeast of China to survey the route without the consent of the Qing government. 165438+ 10, Victor proposed to Xu Jingcheng, the Russian ambassador to China, that "the Russians set up a company to build this road and sign a contract with China", in an attempt to trick the Qing government into taking the bait under the pretext of the so-called Sino-Russian joint venture and "not interfering with state power". Soon, the Russian Foreign Ministry sent a telegram to its ambassador to China, Cassini, asking for a "company discussion" with the Prime Minister's yamen. Victor also set aside "an appropriate sum of money" for the diplomatic envoys in China to bribe "the trusted minister of the Qing emperor". But then, considering that Beijing was in full view, it was not conducive to secret negotiations, and it happened that Tsar Nicholas II was going to hold a coronation ceremony, Russia chose Petersburg as the venue for negotiations. Tsar Nicholas II's coronation ceremony is scheduled to be held in May 1896, and all countries send special envoys to congratulate Cixi and Yi? Everyone thinks that sending Li Hongzhang is the most appropriate. First, foreigners say that for China in the19th century, they only know Li Hongzhang and don't know that there is an emperor. The second is a secret talk with Russia, and only Li Hongzhang can do it.

Li Hongzhang

1February, 896, the Qing government decided to send Li Hongzhang to Russia. In addition, considering that Li Hongzhang was idle at home, Cixi decided to take the opportunity to let him travel to Europe and America and get in touch with the feelings of the great powers.

Li Hongzhang was ordered to be sent to Russia, which was quite "proud" at first, but on the surface he pretended to be old and weak and had a long way to go. On the pretext of "stumbling and hurting the country", he repeatedly refused on the grounds of being stabbed in Shimonoseki, but the Qing government resolutely refused. When Li Hongzhang thought it was really "popular", he said that he "didn't dare to cherish his body, but he was afraid that he would fail in this life", as long as "there is still a breath left under all circumstances".

On February 28th, Cixi summoned Li Hongzhang. Two days later, Li Hongzhang demanded a reprimand. He left Beijing for the south on March 3rd and arrived in Shanghai on March 14. At that time, Britain, France and Germany invited Li Hongzhang to visit first for profit. Li Hongzhang also has plans to transfer to Russia via France and Germany. However, Russia was worried that Li Hongzhang's first visit to France and Germany was not conducive to Sino-Russian negotiations, so Cassini came forward and agreed with Li Hongzhang on the route: take a ship from Shanghai, cross the Red Sea and Suez Canal, transfer to a Russian ship at Port Said in Egypt, enter the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea, reach Odessa, the Russian port city, and then take a bus to Moscow.

1On March 28th, 896, 73-year-old Li Hongzhang led 45 people, including Li, Yu Shimei, Luo, Ke Lede (Russia), Germany, Mu (France), He Zheng (Britain) and Du (America), on a French mail ship. Li is in charge of assistant affairs and taking care of Li Hongzhang's daily life. In addition, there are directors of the Ministry of War and foreign consultants from various countries. Li Hongzhang also brought a British doctor. After starting from Shanghai, they crossed the East China Sea, the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca, crossed the Indian Ocean, crossed the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, and arrived at Port Said in Egypt. The czar sent the Duke of Ukhtomski to meet him at Port Said, and then transferred to a Russian ship, from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.

Before leaving for Shanghai, Li Hongzhang said to visiting Huang Zunxian, "Contacting the West and containing the East is the key to this trip." This not only reflects Li Hongzhang's aspiration, but also expresses the intention of the Qing government. Instead of seeking self-reliance, we should "control foreign countries with foreign countries", and the result will inevitably be controlled by foreign countries.

Li Hongzhang

Li Hongzhang first arrived in Russia. They arrived in the Russian port city of Odessa on April 27th, 1896. Li Hongzhang telegraphed to the Prime Minister's yamen: "When arriving in Odessa, the Russian land and water prefect and the local military and civilian reception were very respectful."

An important task of Li Hongzhang's trip is to form an alliance with Russia.

The tsar asked Li Hongzhang to go to Petersburg first, not to Moscow, so as to start negotiations before the coronation ceremony. "Because it is very difficult to hold negotiations during the coronation ceremony. At that time, there will be various celebrations every day. " On April 30th, Li Hongzhang arrived in Petersburg by express train and lived in the luxurious private house of Ballauff, a giant businessman. Everything from food to indoor furnishings belongs to China, and the daily life in Ballauff is like that of China people. Li Hongzhang "enjoyed it and forgot to be in a foreign land." The czar appointed Victor to negotiate with Li Hongzhang. At that time, someone warned Witt: "Don't worry about negotiating with China officials first, because when they are in a hurry, they will think that they are impolite, and they should be calm in everything and abide by all kinds of etiquette in China." Victor finally pushed Li Hongzhang into the preset trap.

In Petersburg, Li Hongzhang began to discuss the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty with the Russians.

On May 3rd, Victor raised the issue of "borrowing land to build roads" with Li Hongzhang. He linked it with Russia's "support for the integrity of China", and Victor tried to induce the Qing government to yield to the demand of "borrowing land to build roads" that violated China's sovereignty. He said: "I wanted to take the road quickly to help the Japanese. Although China now admits to doing it himself, he is used to mān hān, and I am afraid that he will accomplish nothing after ten years. " Russia proposes to recommend companies to engage in railway affairs. Li Hongzhang put forward "various objections" to Victor's request and explanation, pointing out: "It is an obstacle to China's rights to recommend a company as an agent for Russia, and all countries must comply with it."

Although Victor ran into a nail in the preliminary negotiation with Li Hongzhang, he learned from Li Hongzhang's conversation that he would agree if he saw that the tsar wanted to build a railway. Therefore, Witt suggested that the czar meet with Li Hongzhang.

On May 4th, Li Hongzhang paid a visit to the Tsar in the imperial residence, "presenting credentials, treasure stars, and reciting eulogy". On May 7, the tsar met with Li Hongzhang secretly again. "Tell him to learn from the scriptures and don't let anyone know." The tsar led Li Hongzhang to the convenience hall, sat him down and said: China has a vast territory and a small population, and will never occupy land the size of human beings. Sino-Russian friendship is closer. The road connection in the Eastern Province is actually a way to rapidly transfer troops in the future. China will help if something happens, which is not only beneficial to Russia. China's self-management is not strong enough, and it may also order the Russian-Chinese Bank in Shanghai to undertake it, and formulate the articles of association appropriately, so that China can manage it, and there will be no abuse of power. There are many examples in various countries, so please act accordingly. It is difficult for Japan and Britain to ensure that things will not happen again in the future, and Russia can help.

After the talks, Li Hongzhang sent a telegram to the Prime Minister's yamen, saying that the czar's proposal was "more generous than Witt's". The so-called "harmony" is nothing more than the Tsar's promise not to encroach on people's size, and the Oriental Province is "controlled by China" to help China fight against Britain and Japan. Li Hongzhang believed the czar's promise. In his mind, as the head of a country, how can he lie if he keeps his word? On May 8th, Russian Foreign Minister Banov, together with Victor, continued to negotiate with Li Hongzhang. Li Hongzhang telegraphed the talks to the Prime Minister's yamen at any time, which was handled by Weng Tonghe and Zhang to discuss countermeasures. , Yi Kuang, etc. Please cable Li Hongzhang. Luo Banov and Witt, adhering to the will of the czar, attempted to sign a secret agreement that "China has something to help Russia" in exchange for "the right to connect with the Eastern Province". On the other hand, Li Hongzhang and the Qing government advocated "self-access" and signed a mutual assistance treaty in order to ensure the right of way and win foreign aid. Luo Banov and Victor advanced step by step, and Li Hongzhang retreated step by step. The negotiations between them began in Petersburg and ended in Moscow.

Winner

Li Hongzhang arrived in Moscow on May 6, 2008, and then attended the coronation ceremony of Tsar Nicholas II. He was invited to "enter the palace to celebrate" and "was the first ambassador of all countries, and he didn't know much English". He was awarded the title of "First-class and second-class star, all with diamonds". The tsar's reception of Li Hongzhang was both courteous and courteous, and he tried his best to win people's hearts and not to make public, so as not to cause foreign invasion. Witt said: In the official gazette, there is the least information about Li Hongzhang. "There is no mention of the reception he received in Petersburg, nor the reception he received in Moscow and the reception he received after the coronation ceremony."

In late May, Li Hongzhang thought that things had reached this point and could no longer argue. He called the Prime Minister's yamen and said, "It's time to rush things. Please ask for instructions as soon as possible and reply by telegram." Weng Tonghe and Zhang play together? Yi Kuang, Li Hongzao, Rong Lu, etc. "Discuss with United Russia" and "Read all secret telegrams publicly, and then agree to do so. In other words, this is a plan. " On the 28th, I asked for permission. On the 29th, Weng Tonghe sent a telegram to Zhang, which not only approved the signing of the treaty, but also made some amendments to the "words in the Covenant". On June 3rd, Li Hongzhang, Luo Banov and Victor signed the Treaty of Mutual Assistance to the Enemy, commonly known as the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty, on behalf of the two governments. Witt described a dramatic plot in his memoirs: the first paragraph of the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty drafted by Luo Banov originally stipulated that the Sino-Russian military alliance should deal with "Japan or countries allied with Japan". Witt believes that this will make Russia take unnecessary risks and attract opposition from many European countries. He suggested to the tsar to delete the words "or countries allied with Japan", and the tsar agreed and asked Luo Banov to do so. On the day of signing, when the representatives of both sides were seated at the table, Victor suddenly found that these words had not been deleted from the official text. He was surprised, so he immediately took Luo Banov, who presided over the ceremony, aside and told him about it in a low voice. Luo Banov punched him on the forehead and said, "Oh, that's too bad. I forgot to tell my secretary to rewrite the model like the first draft. " However, after all, he is a senior diplomat and has the ability to improvise. He looked at his watch. It's already a quarter past twelve. He slapped several times. Several people came in and he said, "Let's eat now!" "Then he said to Li Hongzhang and others present," It's past twelve o'clock now, so let's eat first, or the food won't taste good, and then sign after eating. "When everyone went to dinner, he deliberately left two secretaries to make necessary changes to the treaty text, so that after dinner, it would not be the two treaty texts just now, but a revised text. Sadly, Li Hongzhang fell in love with Victor and Luo Banov's charlatan-style "exchange plan" and didn't notice it at all. He signed the revised text at once.

There are six articles in the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty, the main contents of which are as follows: When Japan invaded the Russian Far East or the territories of China and North Korea, China and Russia jointly sent troops to help each other with food and arms; During the war, all ports in China were open to Russian warships; China allows Russia to build railways in Heilongjiang and Jilin provinces to Vladivostok. ...

This treaty is the product of Russia's carefully planned aggression plot and the Qing government's policy of "uniting Russia to control China". Under the guise of Sino-Russian joint defense, Russia not only defrauded the privilege of building a transit railway in the northeast, but also opened the door for its navy and army to invade China's territory.

After signing the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty with Russia that violated China's sovereignty, Li Hongzhang kept it a secret and returned to China. Li Hongzhang said with satisfaction that the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty can guarantee the frontier freedom of the Great Qing Dynasty for 20 years. It never occurred to him that the secret agreement had not even been kept for a year.

1897 german emperor William II visited Russia and hinted at the JIAOZHOU bay problem to Nicholas ii, but Nicholas ii showed no interest. In 165438+ 10, two German missionaries were killed in China, and then the German sailors were killed. Germany finally found an excuse to send troops to occupy Jiaozhou Bay. In February 65438, Russia entered Lushun and Dalian under the pretext of helping the Qing army resist Germany.

Li Hongzhang realized that he had made a big mistake. Finally, the Qing government had to agree to lease Jiaozhou Bay to Germany. Then, Russia shamelessly proposed to lease Lushun and Dalian. The Qing government had to agree. Then France offered to lease Guangzhou. At this time, what can the Qing government do except agree? Since then, Britain has proposed to expand Hong Kong. From then on, the powers began to carve up China.