What are the characteristics of the industrialization models of Britain, France, Germany, the United States and Russia?

(A) Endogenous industrialization model-Britain and the United States

Britain is the first industrialized country in the world, and its industrial revolution is spontaneous. This model is generally called endogenous industrialization, which is a special model in the process of world industrialization and has gone through a relatively long process. Britain's industrialization developed on the premise of a developed market economy. First of all, the enclosure movement revolutionized the land ownership in Britain, changed the agricultural management mode and production organization form, and took the lead in realizing the commercial production of agriculture; The development of agriculture makes the population increase continuously, which provides a broad domestic market and sufficient and cheap labor for industry. The primitive accumulation of capital, the formation of the labor market and the opening of the vast world market have created conditions for the development of industrialization. The invention of the steam engine officially kicked off the industrial revolution. Technological innovation has continuously improved labor productivity, with textile as the leading sector and mining and metallurgy developing in parallel with it, which has promoted the emergence and development of other departments, and industrialization has gradually spread to various industrial production departments and transportation. Driven by profits, the British economic structure has changed, agriculture is no longer dominant, and industry, trade and transportation have begun to dominate the economy. For the British, the changes in social economy, politics, culture and other aspects and the process of modernization are almost seamless, and industrialization is naturally realized.

The motive force of American industrialization mainly comes from internal pressure, which can be regarded as an extension of British industrialization model. Because the United States has a flexible economic system and a strong government guidance policy, it has played a great role in the rapid development of industry. Moreover, the United States has carried out industrial internal innovation on the basis of Britain and established a more advanced production model. As we all know, the United States is a rising capitalist country. Since the independence of 1776, relying on abundant domestic natural resources and using foreign advanced technology, especially technological revolution and system innovation, it has realized the transformation from an agricultural country to an industrial country in just 200 years, and now it has become the country with the strongest economic and technological strength in the world and entered the era of knowledge economy.

First, Americans created a new factory system. When the United States was industrialized, there was a shortage of manpower, but the land was vast and water resources were abundant. So, they merged some scattered production processes and implemented a new division of labor, and then concentrated all the processes of manufacturing a commodity in one factory for unified management. This factory system needs huge funds, so the organization of limited companies has become the main channel to solve the problem. After obtaining the business license according to law, the company can raise capital from many smaller investors. Shareholders only bear "limited liability" and are only responsible for the debts of the company according to their share proportion. This kind of joint-stock company became the foundation of American industrialization.

Universal system is another important technological innovation in the United States. General system makes mass production possible, resulting in "mass production system". Before that, products were all made by craftsmen one by one, and the emergence of universal system made products mass-produced and put on the market in large quantities, which effectively promoted economic development. In addition, the United States is far away from the European continent, so it is not easily affected by the war, and it can also get some benefits from ordering when the European powers are in melee. As a result, after the two world wars, the United States not only quickly became a fully industrialized country, but also became a major superpower in the world.

There are many similarities in the development of Britain and the United States, but both belong to an endogenous industrialization model. They are similar in language, culture, political tradition and religious belief, and they all occupy a very broad market. There is a political institution and corresponding social organizations suitable for the development of industrialization, and they can all obtain the raw materials needed for industrialization. Therefore, people usually refer to the Anglo-American industrialization model as Anglo-American model.

Intermediate industrialization mode-France

French model is a type between endogenous model and pressure model. The industrialization of France has gone through a very tortuous development path and formed a unique French model. First of all, in early modern times, France always had the upper hand compared with Britain in all aspects. Even in the initial stage of industry, the conditions in France are not worse than those in Britain. However, France failed to become "the first tadpole to become a frog". The conditions in France are somewhat similar to those in Britain. The laissez-faire policy is a mechanical imitation of the British experience. France's special national condition lies in its relatively strong state power from the time of Louis XIV before the industrialization process, but these powers have not become the driving force of industrialization, but in many cases they have become obstacles to development. Therefore, French society regards the establishment of democratic system as the premise of economic development, but the establishment of democratic government has caused repeated and serious social unrest. Without a stable environment, France's way of establishing a political and democratic system not only failed to achieve the goal of promoting economic development, but also hindered the French economy from taking off at a certain stage. When France realized that the laissez-faire development model in politics and economy was actually out of date, it explored how to organically combine political democratization with economic development.

Judging from the law of world economic development, when some leading countries have appeared in the world market, it is impossible for other countries to have the same conditions and status in the competition. Therefore, it is necessary to rely on some non-economic force to help the country's economic development, and this force is the government. Since then, Germany and Japan have succeeded by relying on the power of the government. They benefited from the French exploration that when a country's economy takes off, its political reform should pursue a system that can temporarily adapt to economic development, rather than an absolute democratic system.

(C) government-led industrialization model-Germany and Japan

The industrialization process of Germany, another industrial power in Europe, started relatively late after the industrialization of France. Germany is usually called the follower of the second group of industrialization, which is a whole generation later than the industrialization of the United States and France. They learned from the vacillating lessons of France and created a successful model by using effective social and military organizational forms. A highly interventionist government and a proactive bureaucratic system have been established. The German government has played an active role in its industrial development. Through the efforts of the German government, Germany finally became a powerful newly industrialized country at the end of 19.

In the northeast of Asia, under the strong guidance of Meiji Restoration, Japan realized the transformation of modern economy in a short time. On the one hand, introduce advanced western technology to speed up its own industrial construction; On the other hand, it expanded and plundered the wealth of other countries and squeezed into the ranks of big countries in a bloody way.

The industrialization process of Germany and Japan is very fast and has made remarkable achievements. There are many similarities in the industrialization process of the two countries. Germany and Japan are both major industrialized countries in the second group. In terms of development mode, they chose the pressure-oriented industrialization development mode, that is, the government-led industrialization development mode, but the development momentum exceeded almost all countries in the first group. There are many factors, besides the government's role and emphasis on education, the cartel of German and Japanese enterprises is also an important factor. In the process of industrialization of the two countries, enterprise cartelization has become a major trend of industrialization, which reflects the requirements of industrialization development for economies of scale. Without scale, it is impossible to effectively participate in international competition.

The complete social and political modernization of Germany and Japan was also completed by external forces after World War II. It was after 1945 that the United States carried out compulsory democratic transformation in these two countries, and their modernization tasks were completely completed, which was also the key factor for the rapid economic development of Germany and Japan after the war. Therefore, it can also be said that after more than a century of exploration, the catch-up model initially pursued by Germany and Japan has finally returned to the path of peaceful development under the democratic system.

I can't find the Russian one.

I can't find the second question either