What did the Ming and Qing Dynasties do to quell domestic rebellions and fight against foreign aggression?

The Ming and Qing Dynasties were an important period for the consolidation and development of the Chinese nation's democratic unity.

Ming Dynasty: Emphasis on the management of minority areas

Although the Ming Dynasty was a Han government, the government attached great importance to the management and rule of minority areas.

In the ethnic minority areas in the south, the chieftain system since the Yuan Dynasty was first implemented, in which hereditary official positions were granted to the leaders of various ethnic minorities who submitted to them, and they were allowed to manage the areas under their own jurisdiction. Later, "reforming native land and returning it to local rule" was implemented, bringing the chieftain areas under the direct control of the central government, which was conducive to the development of national unity.

Ming Dynasty: All ethnic groups in China achieved true unification

In the northern, northeastern and northwest regions, the Ming government mainly set up military institutions for guarding, such as setting up capital divisions and guard posts. Consolidate the stability and unity of the country.

In addition, the Ming government also encouraged economic and cultural exchanges between ethnic minorities and the Han people, such as immigration, trade, building schools, promoting Confucianism and other measures, all of which achieved obvious results. These measures taken by the Ming government made the relationship between the border minority areas and the central dynasty increasingly closer, thus realizing the true unification of the central dynasty and the border areas.

Qing Dynasty: The unity of the Chinese nation further developed steadily

The Qing Dynasty established by the Manchus was another unified dynasty established by ethnic minorities in Chinese history after the Yuan Dynasty. As the Manchu rulers took many major measures to stabilize the border areas and adopted a more tolerant and open attitude and policy towards Han culture and the cultures of various ethnic minorities, ethnic relations and ethnic integration were further developed, thus strengthening the a sense of mutual recognition.

The Qing Dynasty: embodies strong national cohesion

The territory of China established and consolidated with strong national power in the early Qing Dynasty promoted the continuous increase of national cohesion. When it was invaded by foreign countries in the late Qing Dynasty, , all ethnic groups in China's regions have resisted foreign powers in order to safeguard national sovereignty and territorial integrity, which fully reflects the strong cohesion of the Chinese nation.

What are the unique features of the ethnic policy of the Qing Dynasty compared with previous dynasties?

From the time of Emperor Shunzhi, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty learned the lessons of the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty. They first affirmed the advancement of Han culture and adopted the policy of learning from the Han people, their customs and culture, reusing Han ministers, and opening up academic institutions. A series of behaviors such as taking exams, building Confucian temples, and worshiping Confucius. These actions were almost opposed by the civil and military officials of the Manchu Dynasty during the reign of Emperor Shunzhi. Even Emperor Shunzhi's biological mother did not support him. This may be the reason why Emperor Shunzhi died of depression.

But the facts proved that Emperor Shunzhi was right. Kangxi not only inherited Shunzhi's policies, but also personally went to the south of the Yangtze River to pay homage to the Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum to calm the hearts of the Han people. From then on, the first-rank officials, such as the minister of the upper study room, etc., changed the history of no Han ministers and put Han ministers in important positions. For example, Zhang Tingyu lived in three dynasties and served as chief minister for more than 40 years. These practices are unprecedented.

Lifanyuan

The central agency in the Qing Dynasty that managed the affairs of Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan and other ethnic minorities. Before the Qing Dynasty, the feudal dynasties in the past dynasties only had officials in charge of the affairs of ethnic minorities and did not set up special agencies. In the first year of Chongde (1636) of the Qing Dynasty, the Mongolian Yamen was established, which was headed by Chengzheng and Shenzhen. In June of the third year, it was renamed Lifanyuan and belonged to the Ministry of Rites. In the first year of Shunzhi (1644), the ministers and ministers were replaced. In the eighteenth year, the official system was set to the same six departments, and the minister of the Lifan Yuan was also included in the discussion of politics. There are four departments: Luxun, Guest, Rouyuan, and Li Xing. During the reign of Yongzheng, the kings, dukes, and bachelors were appointed to manage the affairs of the academy. Qianlong reorganized the six departments of Qiji, Wanghui, Dianshu, Rouyuan, Laiyuan and Lixing. Before the establishment of the Prime Minister's Office for Foreign Affairs in December of the 10th year of Xianfeng (January 1861), it also handled foreign affairs with Russia. In September of the 33rd year of Guangxu (1907), it was changed to the administrative vassal department and was abolished after the Qing Dynasty.

The Lifanyuan was initially in charge of Mongolian affairs. With the establishment of the Qing government's national power, it became the central agency in charge of affairs in Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang and other ethnic minority areas. The Qing rulers implemented their rule over various ethnic minority areas through the Lifan Yuan and strengthened their ties with them. In the twenty-sixth year of Kangxi's reign (1697), the "Legal Regulations of the Lifanyuan" was revised, which fixed various measures for the rule of minority areas with laws and regulations. After that, it was revised four times during the Qianlong, Jiaqing, Daoguang and Guangxu years.

The Six Divisions of the Lifan Yuan are responsible for government orders such as titles and salaries, tribute, boundary determination, official system, military punishment, household registration, farming and animal husbandry, taxation, inns, trade, religion, etc. There are also the General Affairs Department, the Bank Treasury, the Food and Banking Department, the Monthly Department, the Supervisory and Urgent Department, and the Manchu, Han, Mongolian, and Salary rooms to handle the daily affairs of the government office. Under the jurisdiction of the Lifan Academy, there are institutions such as the Inner Pavilion, the External Pavilion, Mongolian Studies, Tangut Studies, Tota Studies, Russian Studies, Mulan Paddock, Lama Printing Office, and Zelu Library. In addition, division officers, pen posties, etc. are assigned to be stationed in ethnic minority areas to handle specific affairs and rotate regularly.

The historical role of the Lifan Yuan

First of all, the Lifan Yuan implemented the Qing Dynasty’s relatively successful policy of ruling the minority areas in the western and northern frontiers. The Qing Dynasty was a feudal dynasty established by the Manchus, a minority group in my country. In view of the historical lesson that the late Ming Dynasty was unable to take into account the surrounding areas, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty, especially the feudal emperors in the early Qing Dynasty, attached great importance to the rule of border ethnic minorities.

They regard the vast areas inhabited by ethnic minorities in the western and northern frontiers as "screen vassals" that rule the Central Plains. They believe that "confused our external vassals" will "destroy our screen walls" and will make the "frontier" "unrest". And "as long as the border is restless, the people in the interior will not be able to rest." This will inevitably endanger the stability of national governance. Based on this understanding, Emperor Kangxi summarized a lot of experience in ruling ethnic minorities in the western and northern border areas during his 61 years in power. He believed that the purpose of ruling the western and northern border areas was to "govern them properly." He specifically pointed out the need to strengthen the centripetal force of ethnic minorities in these areas towards the central government. Regarding the tributes from ethnic minorities in these areas, he once commented: "How precious the tributes are is a reflection of their sincere respect." In order to show the importance of ruling the minority areas in the western and northern frontiers, Kangxi also included "Rouyuan Nengnei" as the actual content of "respecting heaven and the ancestor" in his will, so that future generations would never forget it. After Emperor Yongzheng ascended the throne, he personally wrote a plaque for the Lifanyuan: "Xuanhua Xia Fang", and proposed in the policy of governing the minority areas in the western and northern border areas that "according to the customs and appropriateness, each one should settle down with his customs". During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, although he believed that "to control the way of foreign vassals, show humility to others, they will become arrogant, and use power to fear others will make you fearful", so he adopted the policy of "mutual aid between lenient and fierce" and "using both kindness and power", but At the same time, we still advocate "following the customs and adapting to the appropriate" and "not changing our habits." In short, the rule of the western and northern border areas in the early Qing Dynasty actually adopted the policy of "repairing one's religion but not changing one's customs, and regulating one's administration but not changing one's suitability".

Secondly, the Lifanyuan promoted the consolidation and development of the unified multi-ethnic country in the early Qing Dynasty, which was mainly reflected in three aspects. (1) In the middle of the 17th century, the activities of the Lifan Yuan ensured the smooth entry of the Qing Dynasty and promoted the Qing Dynasty's unification of the country. Due to the weakening of the central power caused by the corruption of the Ming Dynasty, our country fell into a state of division in the mid-17th century. This division was not a praiseworthy phenomenon at the time. On the one hand, because of the continuous wars of separatism, people have been displaced and the social economy has been destroyed. On the other hand, at that time, Western capitalist forces had already moved eastward, and Tsarist Russia was always keeping an eye on the great rivers and mountains in the north of our country. If the separatist situation continues, it may give these aggressive forces an opportunity to take advantage. Therefore, restoring reunification as soon as possible is not only conducive to the recuperation and recuperation of the people of all ethnic groups in the country and meets the fundamental interests of the entire Chinese people, but is also of great significance for resisting the forces of Western colonialism and the aggressive forces of Tsarist Russia. History has proved that the historical mission of unification was undertaken by the Qing Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty was able to shoulder this important task because, among other factors, Monan Mongolia had become its reliable rear and important support force. This was closely related to the Lifan Yuan. Four months after the establishment of the Lifan Yuan, its officials went to Chahar, Khalkha, and Horqin tribes to "check household registrations, compile cattle records, imprison common people in prison, and prohibit adultery." In just one month, the Niulu was compiled and the inventory of soldiers was completed. This not only stabilized the social order of Monan Mongolia, but also provided a source of troops for the Qing Dynasty. Eight years after the establishment of the Lifanyuan, the Qing Dynasty entered the Pass, and the various Mongolian tribes in Monan followed suit. At the same time, when the Qing Dynasty entered the customs, the Lifan Yuan promptly notified the Monan Mongolian ministries of the Qing army's entry into the customs and occupation of Beijing, so that they were always prepared. Although the Qing army used brutal violence during the unification process after entering the customs, which temporarily affected the social and economic development, the historical significance of the Qing Dynasty's unification of the country cannot be erased in any case.

The Qing Dynasty was a period of unprecedented development and consolidation of the multi-ethnic unified country in my country's feudal society. During the Qing Dynasty, there was a long-term struggle between the forces maintaining national unity and various separatist forces. In these struggles, the Lifan Yuan fully played its role in maintaining unity. Some have been mentioned before. For another example, in March of the 25th year of Kangxi's reign (1686), after the conflict between the Khalkha Mongol Tushetu and Zhasaktu Khans, Alani, the Minister of the Lifan Academy, personally went to the Seven Banners of Khalkha to join the alliance. He tried his best to encourage them to "let go of their old grievances" and "make peace with each other and enjoy peace". In August of this year, Alani summoned the Khans of the two wings of Khalkha to convey the imperial edict of Kangxi, asking them to "reunite together." When Galdan launched a civil war and the Khalkha Mongolian tribes led their troops to flee south, the Lifan Yuan immediately reported the situation to Emperor Kangxi and was responsible for arranging the livelihood of the Khalkha Mongolian tribes. It was under the organization and arrangement of the Lifan Yuan and through the Duolun League that a stable situation quickly emerged in the northern border of our country. Emperor Kangxi said: "In the past, the Qin Dynasty carried out earth and stone work to build the Great Wall. Our court was kind to Khalkha, so that it could defend Shuofang and make the Great Wall stronger. It should be said that this solid condition of the northern border is in line with the Lifan Yuan's This in turn prepared the conditions for completely crushing the Galdan civil strife and resisting the expansion of Tsarist Russia.

In addition to promoting the political and military aspects of the Qing Dynasty's multi-ethnic unified country, the Lifan Yuan also promoted the establishment of a multi-ethnic unified country in the Qing Dynasty. In addition to development and consolidation, it also promoted economic exchanges between the western and northern border minority areas and the mainland of the Central Plains to varying degrees, and promoted the economic development of the border minority areas. After the Duolun Alliance, the Lifan Yuan sent officials to Shanxi and other places to prepare. Lei Ti helped the Khalkha Mongols grow crops in the fertile land. The Lifan Yuan also assisted in organizing ethnic minorities in border areas to establish "Changpingcang" to store grains for relief, in accordance with the will of the Qing emperors. "Publish the real number" and "make a seal and report to the court after autumn every year". Only the 26 banners of the three alliances of Zhelimu, Zhaowuda and Zhuosuotu in Mongolia have more than 246,100 stones. In the 12th year of Yongzheng (1734) In February, people and animals were injured due to wind and snow in the lower pastoral area of ??Dalma Jilidi, the king of Wulat Town.

The Lifanyuan sent officials to provide relief on a per-household basis, totaling 15,385 households, with 7,240.1 kilograms of rice spent in 6 months. During the disaster relief process, officials from the Lifan Yuan adapted measures to local conditions and helped the Mongolian people build boats, nets, and fish in areas with rivers. In addition, the post stations managed by the Lifan Yuan connected the western and northern border minority areas with the hinterland, which played a certain role in the recovery and development of the economy in the western and northern regions and the unification and consolidation of the multi-ethnic country of the Qing Dynasty.

When we evaluate the Qing Dynasty's Lifan Yuan and basically affirm its historical role, we should explain that the Li Fan Yuan was ultimately a tool of class rule and oppression in the Qing Dynasty. It safeguards the interests of princes and nobles of ethnic minorities and their exploitation of working people of all ethnic groups. The working people of the ethnic minority groups in the western and northern border areas were exploited by "extensive wages and heavy corvee" and were "introduced to the dangerous territory". They lived in extreme poverty. In the event of disasters and famines, although the Qing Dynasty managed vassal courts to provide relief, due to the upper-level princes They "just settle down" and the working people "do not get any benefits." The "taxes" and "tributes and corvees" needed by the ruling class are like two ropes, tightly binding the ethnic minority working people, making it difficult for them to escape the sea of ??"heavy taxes and hard labor". Therefore, the phenomenon of ethnic minority working people in the western and northern frontiers being “dispersed due to hunger and cold” can be seen everywhere.

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The Ming Dynasty’s treatment of ethnic minorities The killings and evidence that the Manchus were Ming Dynasty people

Many people were dissatisfied with the brutality of the Qing Dynasty and accused the Qing Dynasty of excessive killing. But throughout all the feudal dynasties, which ones were not stained with blood?

In the fifth year of Hongwu's reign, thirty-six caves were conquered. In the sixth year of Jingtai, he conquered Huguang Miao Mengneng and besieged Longli, Huaihua, and Tonggu places. In the fifth year of Tianshun, the army went deep into the Miao territory, broke through hundreds of villages, burned 3,000 homes, and beheaded more than 3,300 people. In the third year of Tianshun (AD 1459), after the failure of the Miao people's uprising in Ba Zhu and others in central Guizhou, 4,490 people were killed and 5,500 women were captured and sent to other places. During the Wanli period, the Ming Dynasty used troops to pacify Bozhou Tusi Yang. During the Yinglong Rebellion, many Miao and Gelao people were massacred and forced to flee. After the war, only "two out of ten" survived. In order to "open the border", the Ming Dynasty set up a large number of forts in eastern Guizhou, Guiyang, Anshun and other places, forcing many Miao people to relocate. (Volume 2 of "Qiubei County Chronicles")

In the excerpts of Bai Gui, the right deputy censor of Guizhou Military Affairs, the one on the left "Beheaded 10,000 people" and the one on the right "Beheaded 3,000 people" are very proud.

According to the "Fenghuang Hall Chronicles" and "Luxi County Chronicles": the population of the Miao District "has been greatly reduced to less than a hundred" and "has been extinct several times." "After the conquest and suppression, the village was left empty of all ten houses, and all human traces were extinct."

Li Chengliang, the commander-in-chief of Liaodong in the Ming Dynasty, under the guidance of Nikan Wailan, the lord of Tulun, captured the ancient Qi city of Atai and massacred the city. . He also accidentally killed Nurhaci's grandfather Juechanggang and his father Ta Shi.

Besides, the Manchus were originally people of the Ming Dynasty, how could they be compared to Japan?

During the Yongle period of Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty, some Jurchens from the East China Sea moved southward, and they often had wars with the Jurchens in Jianzhou. The Jurchens in Jianzhou were forced to move south and west.

During the Xuande period, Brother Tong Meng Timur was killed by the Jurchens of the East China Sea. His younger brother Fancha, his son Tongcang, and Dong Shan led their troops to move westward, passing through the Tongjia River (now Hunjiang River), entering Hetuala (now Xinbin County, Liaoning Province), and at Hulan Hada Mountain (also called Yantong Mountain), they built a city and settled down by the Suzi River, a tributary of the Hun River.

In the orthodox period, in order to win over the Jurchens in Jianzhou, the Ming government appointed Li Manzhu, the grandson of Ahachu, as the commander of the Jianzhou Guards. , Fancha is the commander of the right guard of Jianzhou, and Dong Shan is the commander of the left guard of Jianzhou. The name "Three Guards of Jianzhou" comes from this. The Three Guards of Jianzhou are local agencies established by the Ming government, which are in charge of military, It also deals with civil affairs, "the Ministry of Fusui" and "guarding the local area". The chief is appointed by the central government and can be hereditary. He must obey the orders of the central government and assume various obligations. "When there is a call, he will obey it immediately and no one dares to disobey it." Period"①. Just as Emperor Taizong Huang Taiji of the Qing Dynasty said: "My ancestors have been loyal and obedient to the Ming Dynasty for many years." This vividly reflects the close relationship between the central government and the local health offices of the Ming Dynasty.

① Volume 22 of "Zuo Zhuan", the ninth year of Zhaogong.

① Yan Congjian: Volume 24 of "Shuyu Zhou Zilu"

In the early Ming Dynasty, Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang attached great importance to the governance of ethnic minorities in the northeastern border. In the third year of Hongwu (1370), the Ding Liao Guard was established in Liaodong. In the eighth year (1375), the Liao Guard was changed to the Liaodong Commander. As an envoy, he managed 25 guards and 138 hospitals in Liaodong, two states and one league.

In the seventh year of Yongle (1409), the Nurgan Dusi was set up in the Telin area of ??Heilongjiang, and all the famous guards under its jurisdiction were built. Zhouwei, Haixiwei, Wuzhewei, Nanghaerwei, etc. Emperor Zhu Di sent the eunuch Yisheha to Nurergandusi to conduct condolences and inspections, which enhanced the relationship between the ethnic groups in the border areas and the central government of the Ming Dynasty.

In the 18th year of Yongle (1420), after the Ming Dynasty moved its capital to Beijing, it strengthened its management of the northeastern region. From the Hongwu to the Zhengtong years, it successively established Kuye Island in the east and Kuye Island in the west. From the Onan River to the Udi River in the north and the Sea of ??Japan in the south, 184 wards were built in a vast area. This has played a positive role in promoting the development and construction of the northeastern border areas, as well as the economic and cultural exchanges between the border areas and the Central Plains.

For the Jurchens and other ethnic groups in the Northeast, the Ming government adopted the policy of appeasement, restraint and divide and rule. Politically, the Ming government appointed tribal chiefs, who served as the chief of the guard, declared their duties, and issued imperial edicts, also known as seals. ."The official's chief is the governor, commanding and commanding thousands of households, and holding the posts of governor and governor. They are given seals so that they can remain in the secular state and everyone is under their own control."①.Each guard station must perform various obligations to the Ming government." "In order to pay tribute", the officials of the guard station must go to Beijing regularly to report on their duties and report to the local government to control chaos. Jianzhou and Haixi Jurchens come to Beijing from Kaiyuan every winter to pay tribute. The tributes mainly include ginseng, mink skins, sea greens, horses, pearls and other places. Rare souvenirs.