Western Ukraine under Habsburg rule in Ukrainian history

1772, the Habsburg dynasty seized Galicia from Poland. Two years later, he seized Bukovina, which was partly Ukrainian and partly Romanian, from Modavia. Transcarpathian region is a part of the Hungarian kingdom during the Habsburg dynasty and the third ethnic region in Ukraine. The three regions under the Habsburg dynasty had many similar experiences, but they were different because of their unique national environment and early historical differences. During the Austrian rule, Galicia, where Ukrainians lived, was administratively merged with the pure Polish region in the west into a province, with Lviv (Rumberg in German) as its capital. This and the fact that Poles constitute the overwhelming majority of the landlord class and control the main cities in the Ukrainian half of the province (although many towns are mainly Jews) make the confrontation between Poles and Ukrainians a vital issue in Galicia's life. Although, on the whole, the policies of the Habsburg dynasty were beneficial to the Poles, Ukrainians (then known as Rosenians) enjoyed much more opportunities and progress in the development of Austria than in czarist Russia.

The reforms initiated by Maria Tracy and Joseph II and the imperial administrative system in Galicia improved the situation of Ukrainians. /kloc-in the 1980s, restrictions on corvees and the lifting of restrictions on individuals by landlords and new farming methods also benefited farmers. Municipal reform reversed the decline of cities and improved the legal and social status of urban residents in Ukraine. The educational reform carried out as early as 1775 allowed teaching in Ukrainian mother tongue.

The fate of the Catholic Church in Dongyi has also improved. 1774 changed its name to Greek Catholic Church. According to the imperial decree, its status is completely equal to that of the Catholic Church. 1807, the archdiocese was established in Liviv. The imperial authorities also took great pains to improve the education level of clergy. In the early decades of the19th century, clergy were trained in newly established colleges, almost only they were educated intellectuals, and their children began to engage in secular occupations, thus forming the intellectual class in Ukraine. In the19th century, the Greek Catholic Church developed into a major national and religious institution.

The 1848 revolution that swept the Austrian empire made Ukrainians in Galicia. The Russian Supreme Parliament, established to express the concerns of Ukrainians, declared that the Russians in Austria and Ukrainians under Russian rule are the same nation. Demands that Galicia be divided into two independent provinces, Poland and Ukraine, the latter including Bukovina and Transcarpathia; Set up the National Guard and several military units; Publish the first Ukrainian newspaper.

Although the revolution was suppressed, it triggered important changes in Galicia society. The corvee was abolished in 1848. However, due to inadequate land reform, overpopulation in rural areas and almost no industry to absorb surplus labor, the poverty of Ukrainian farmers has intensified. Before World War I, a large number of Ukrainians began to immigrate to the United States.

Another consequence of the 1848 revolution was that the imperial government reached an understanding with Polish nobles and handed over the political control of Galicia to the Poles. The hegemony of the local Poles was not greatly influenced by the reforms in1960s, but these reforms gave Austria a constitution and parliament, and Galicia exercised autonomy in the province and established a provincial parliament. The appointment of the governor of Vienna is limited to the selection from Polish nobles. At the beginning of the Habsburg dynasty, the administrative organs and the German-made Liviv University were all Poles. According to the ancient Roman model, the elections conducted by the national assembly and the provincial assembly in favor of the landlord class and the urban class inevitably produced the dominant Polish majority. The main demands put forward by Ukrainian parliamentarians in parliament include the division of Galicia according to race, the replacement of the ancient Roman electoral system with universal suffrage, and the establishment of a Ukrainian university in Liviv, which have not been met.

In the1860s, the disappointment with the Habsburg dynasty and the worry about the new dominance of Poland aroused the pro-Russian sentiment of the older and more conservative clergy intellectuals. Pro-Russian elements advocate Ukrainian-Russian mixed language and pursue a policy of attaching importance to Russian culture and politics. Since 1970s, they have been losing ground to populists, who encouraged the use of their own dialects and emphasized that Ukrainians in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire are the same nation.

At the turn of the century, ethnic conflicts in Galicia deepened. 1902, a large-scale peasant strike against Polish landlords took place. Students from Ukrainian universities took part in demonstrations and clashed with Poles. 1908, a student assassinated the governor of Galicia. 1907 The practice of universal suffrage for male citizens in the Austrian parliamentary elections strengthened the representation of Ukrainians in Vienna and increased the pressure to implement the same reform at the provincial level. The increasingly tense relationship with Russia. Vienna was urged to seek reconciliation between Ukrainians and Poles, but the opposition of Poles kept the electoral system in ancient Rome almost to the end.

By the outbreak of World War I, Ukrainians in Galicia, Austria were still a social class with the overwhelming majority of farmers and political disadvantages. However, they have made progress and reached a high level of national consciousness, which is in sharp contrast with the situation in Ukraine under Russian rule. Bukovina is a small area between the middle reaches of Nestor River and the main vein of Carpathian Mountains. It was once a part of Kiev, Russia and the Principality of Galicia-Voronia. /kloc-merged into Modavia in the 0/4th century, and/kloc-became a vassal state of Otto Manchu Empire in the 0/6th century. When/kloc-0 was annexed by Austria in 774, the Orthodox residents were composed of two ethnic groups, mostly Ukrainians in the north and Romanians in the south.

The Habsburg dynasty soon implemented reforms similar to those in Galicia. From 1787 to 1849, Bukovina and Galicia merged into an independent region, 186 1 year, which became an independent state of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and gained complete autonomy. In the19th century, due to immigration, some quite large Jewish and German village communities appeared. German is the official language of the province; But Ukrainian and Romanian are widely used in public life, some codes of conduct and local universities. By the end of this century, there were frictions between Romanians and Ukrainians on issues such as Ukrainians trying to get equal treatment in the management of Orthodox churches, but they did not reach the level of mutual hostility in Galicia. Since the end of1860s, the Ukrainian national movement in Bukovina has achieved the same development as the Galician national movement closely related to it. The material supply and educational facilities of Ukrainian schools are superior to those of any other region in Ukraine. Located in the south of Carpathian Mountain. Transcarpathian has long been isolated from other ethnic areas in Ukraine geographically and politically. Originally the territory of Russia in Kiev, 10 15 years later was occupied by Hungary, and 1 000 continued to be a part of its territory. 16 ~17th century, belonging to the Habsburg dynasty together with Hungary. 1646 after the implementation of the Uzhgorod joint agreement, according to the terms of the Brest-Litovsk joint agreement, the Catholic Church in Dongyi was in a dominant position in the religious field. Transcarpathian is characterized by an overwhelming rural population, a large number of Ukrainian farmers, powerful Hungarian landlords and nobles, and a large number of Jews living in cities and rural areas.

/kloc-at the end of 0/8, the social reform advocated by Vienna soon failed because of the opposition of Hungarian nobles. At that time, the education level higher than Galicia also declined at the beginning of19th century. However, before the middle of19th century, the relationship between the church and Galicia was still very close.

1848 The Hungarian revolution was strongly nationalistic and alienated many Slavic minorities in China. 1849 Revolution was suppressed by Russian troops. Therefore, pro-Russian thoughts and feelings were stimulated, and pro-Russian became the main cultural and political tendency among intellectuals in Transcarpathia. However, the political arrangement of 1867 resulted in the dual monarchy of Austria and Hungary, and the control of domestic policies was given to the Hungarian oligarchs. There are more and more restrictions on the use of Rosseni in schools and publications, and the trend of Hungarian is getting stronger and stronger. It was not until the early 20th century that the pro-Ukrainian populist movement developed into the antithesis of pro-Russia and Hungary. By the outbreak of World War I, the national consciousness of Ukrainians in Transcarpathian was still at a low level of development.