How many years did the Byzantine military district system last?

The implementation of the military district system gradually stabilized the territory of the Byzantine Empire centered on the Balkan Peninsula, and restored its national strength. Not only did it achieve a decisive victory in the war against the Persians, but it also forced the Byzantine Empire into the Balkan Peninsula. The Slavs surrendered and became subjects of the Byzantine Empire. At the same time, the Byzantines relied on their gradually restored economic strength and diplomatic activities to achieve peace with other ethnic groups such as the Avars. From this starting point, the Byzantine Empire achieved many important military victories in its mid-term history.

It took about 500 years from the emergence of the Byzantine military district system to its disintegration. During this period, the military district system played a very important role in the development of Byzantine history.

First, the military district system adapted to the Byzantine Empire’s national conditions of frequent foreign wars and increasingly serious border defense crises. Through the militarization of local governing institutions, it partially solved the difficulty of depleting military and financial resources and eased the The crisis of foreign invasion created conditions for the revival of Byzantine military power.

In the 7th century, the Byzantine army defeated the Persians, defeated the Avars, conquered the Slavs, and stopped the expansion of the Arab army at its peak in Asia Minor and the Eastern Mediterranean, leaving the precarious The situation has fundamentally improved. This series of military achievements cannot but be attributed to the implementation of the military district system. Not only that, based on the victory in the 7th century, Byzantine military power was adjusted and strengthened. As a result, it won many important victories in the wars against the Arabs during the 8th and 9th centuries. At the same time, the Byzantine army also repeatedly won in the long-term war to defend against the Slavic invasion and conquer the Bulgarians, and finally defeated the dominant Bulgarian kingdom.

Second, the implementation of the military district system promoted the prosperity of the small farmer economy and increased national tax revenue, which effectively enhanced the country's economic strength. Other cities have created a favorable internal and external environment for the prosperity and development of industrial and commercial centers.

The small-scale peasant economy was the basic economic sector and the main source of tax revenue for the Byzantine state. Scholars estimate that 95% of the Byzantine state's income came from agriculture, and only 5% came from urban industry and commerce. Throughout the history of Byzantium, the annual income of the country fluctuated, but the period of highest income was during the several hundred years when the military district system was promoted. In the early years of Byzantine history, taxation was based on the reforms of Diocletian and Constantine, mainly including land taxes and poll taxes. These two taxes did not undergo fundamental changes until the end of the Byzantine Empire, but the form of collection changed. As the main taxpayers of the country, small farmers, in addition to regular land tax and poll tax, also bear various non-conventional taxes levied from time to time. The military district system promoted the improvement of small farmers' productivity and enabled them to pay exorbitant taxes and miscellaneous taxes. In bad times, even guarantees can help poor farmers tide over the difficulties. The implementation of the military district system enabled the Byzantine Empire to obtain more income from a smaller territory, which from another aspect shows that the military district system had a beneficial impact on the Byzantine agricultural economy.

The implementation of the military district system also indirectly promoted the development of Byzantine industry and commerce. On the one hand, the revival of small-scale peasant economy created a material foundation for the development of industry and commerce. The Byzantine countryside maintained close ties with the large and small towns within the empire. The small-scale peasant economy not only obtained necessary handicrafts from the urban market, but also provided agricultural and sideline products to urban craftsmen. The revival of the small-scale peasant economy means more frequent exchanges of materials between urban and rural areas, and it also means that industry and commerce have gained a larger domestic market. On the other hand, the relatively stable environment under the military zone system is conducive to the development of industry and commerce. Byzantine industry and commerce became more prosperous after the 8th century, and cities developed more rapidly. Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Trabizond and other cities were among the largest cities in medieval Europe. Especially the capital Constantinople, due to its improved industrial and commercial investment environment, this bridge connecting East and West trade gave full play to its geographical advantages and became the largest commercial center in the Mediterranean world. For a time, all industries in Constantinople were prosperous and merchants gathered. By the 9th and 10th centuries, commercial activities were at their peak.

Thirdly, the military district system stabilized all strata of Byzantine society through the implementation of the military land system and farmland, controlled the unorganized state of population mobility, and eased sharp social conflicts.

During the Justinian era, the Byzantine government took measures to restrict population mobility in order to stabilize all social strata. The "Justinian Code" strictly stipulates that the descendants of soldiers can only serve as soldiers, and the descendants of farmers must work in farming, and they are fixed to the land by depriving peasants of their freedom of movement. However, this policy did not work. Bankrupt small farmers fled in large numbers, either flocking to the cities to seek a way out, or fleeing the mountains and forests to become bandits, or taking desperate measures and gathering crowds to revolt. Social conflicts intensified as never before. The main force of the "Nika" uprising, which was the largest at that time and almost overthrew the rule of Justinian I, was bankrupt farmers from all over the country. Similar large-scale uprisings and riots were well documented at the time. The military region system, through the reform of military and economic systems, enables farmers to have land to farm, families to return to, and to engage in production in a stable environment. This system started from solving the livelihood of small farmers and strengthening local management, and re-adjusted the relationship between various classes of Byzantine society.

If after the mid-6th century, the Slavic tribes moving southward from the Danube River to the Balkan Peninsula was also regarded as a blind population flow, then the immigration policy adopted by the Byzantine government was to convert this The unorganized population flow was reorganized in military districts, and by retaining and promoting the Slavic rural commune system, social problems caused by the large-scale movement of Slavic people were resolved in an advantageous manner.

It is worth mentioning that the military district system does not use harsh legislation to fix the occupations of all social classes and residents, but through institutional innovation and reform, it focuses on solving the living environment of the small farmers who make up the majority of the population. problems, thereby creating favorable conditions for social stability.

Fourth, the implementation of the military region system will inevitably lead to the rise of military aristocrats backed by large real estates. They have formed local separatist forces that compete with centralization, and even rely on their military and economic strength to influence government affairs or change dynasties. . This is the negative impact of the military district system on Byzantine political life. As mentioned above, the expropriation of small farmers' land by large landowners is an important factor in the decline of small farmers' economy. However, the bankruptcy of small farmers' economy also stimulates the development of large landowners. This mutual causal relationship was most vividly demonstrated in the political life of Byzantium in the 10th century. At that time, some emperors recognized the importance of protecting small farmers in maintaining their rule and therefore adopted legislative measures to limit the expansion of large landowners. They often appeared as protectors of small farmers, accusing large landowners of "falling on unfortunate villages like plague and gangrene, devouring the soil, invading the very fabric of the villages, and pushing them to the brink of death." However, due to his class limitations, the ruler cannot sincerely speak out for the interests of the farmers. He only wants to maintain his own rule. This contradiction cannot be completely resolved.

The decree of 922 AD clearly stipulates that small farmers and their communes have the first right to purchase and rent fields and farmhouses, and it is strictly prohibited for large landowners to accept poverty in any way, including bequests, donations, purchases and leases, etc. It also stipulates that military land acquired from peasants and soldiers in any way during the past 30 years must be returned to its original owner unconditionally.

In 996 AD, the Byzantine government issued a similar decree again. On the surface, they appear to be to protect the small-scale peasant economy. In fact, these laws have the political significance of dismantling local separatist forces and strengthening centralization. However, the Byzantine rulers failed to take real measures to crack down on the big landowners. On the one hand, the emperors had to use the political power of the major military nobles to maintain their rule; on the other hand, attacking the big military nobles meant weakening the military district system and the small peasant economy. It is also difficult to preserve. Especially when the power of the large real estate aristocracy is already quite strong, the real blow to them would be to abolish the military zone system, and the small farmers, mainly peasants and soldiers, will also go to the same path of death.

Therefore, the above-mentioned legislation was not really implemented, and the emperors were unstoppable in dismantling the small peasant economy. They have allowed the deterioration of the situation of small farmers to remain unchecked and have only issued a few pieces of legislation without any practical solutions. In this way, the status of small farmers has not been strengthened. They are in a situation of being annexed at any time under the attack of various disasters and upheavals. Even if the law temporarily provides them with various priorities, these seem to be in vain. In the end, they can only give up their land voluntarily. or transferred to large landowners.

The great military aristocrats relied on their economic strength to support their own troops, directly participated in the internal strife of the royal family, and some even climbed to the throne of the emperor. Since the end of the 10th century, the military aristocracy has formed a powerful political force, competing for power and profit with the bureaucratic forces of the central government, fighting openly and covertly. The contest between these two major political forces formed the main line of national political life in the late Byzantine Empire. At the end of the 10th century, the well-established military nobles launched rebellions based in the Asia Minor military region. Among them, the "Two Varzas Rebellion" during the reign of Basil II had the greatest influence.

During the 11th century, the rebellion of the military nobles intensified. They not only stormed the capital, but also overthrew the emperor and proclaimed themselves emperor. During this period, at least five emperors were military aristocrats who climbed to the throne through mutiny.

During the reign of the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, the most powerful military aristocrat John Cantacusenus (reigned from 1347 to 1354) dominated the government for decades. Family assets helped Andronicus III (reigned from 1328 to 1341) defeat the old emperor in the dynastic civil war and ascend to the throne.

After the death of Andronicus III, he hired the Turks with a lot of money, defeated his opponents, and established himself as emperor.

Obviously, the weakening of centralized power by the military aristocracy based on large estates was another important factor in the late Byzantine Empire's constant civil strife and eventual demise.