Lost civilization, who can introduce some to me?

First, the lost civilization: ancient Greece

Judging from the history of civilization development, Greece is rich in Paleolithic culture and Neolithic culture. The earliest human fossil in Europe-Homo erectus Petralona (about 300,000 years ago) was discovered in northern Greece. This undoubtedly shows that Greece is an important cradle of western civilization. When history entered the Aegean civilization, that is, Crete and Mycenae culture period (2000 ~ 1 100 BC), Greek culture was ahead of western history.

During this period, the most important historical development in Homer's era was the use of iron. The use of iron has promoted the development of agriculture, handicrafts and industry and commerce; At the same time, on the basis of Aegean civilization, the Greeks created the geometric style culture of Homer's era. In the hundreds of years since the formation of geometric culture, epic stories have become an all-encompassing treasure house of folk oral literature creation through literary imagination, exaggeration and typical shaping, and then refined and pondered by great poets like Homer in later generations, becoming a treasure of world literature and an important source of classical art. In the 9th century BC, Greece established hundreds of city-states. The establishment of these city-states adapted to the development of productive forces and also mobilized the Greek consciousness of creating culture. Greek society in primitive times absorbed the nutrition of Aegean civilization and Homer's poetic history. At the same time, through Solon's reform, the politics, economy and culture of the society continued to develop harmoniously, thus accumulating rich cultural details and the internal driving force of cultural changes for cultural creation in classical times.

Second, the lost civilization: ancient Rome

Ancient Roman civilization

There are both connections and differences between ancient Roman civilization and ancient Greek civilization. People say, "brilliant Greece, great Rome." The Romans learned a lot from the Greeks, such as literature, mythology, religion and art, but they surpassed the ancient Greeks in politics, law and urban planning and construction, leaving a valuable legacy to mankind.

It is staggered in time. Long before the glorious Greece began to decline, Roman civilization began to rise on both sides of the Tiber River in the west. Around the same time as Alexander the Great conquered, Rome became the master of the Italian peninsula. In the next five centuries, Rome's power continued to increase. By the end of the first century BC, Rome not only controlled most parts of western Europe, but also controlled most Hellenistic areas. After conquering the Hellenistic region and destroying the Carthaginian civilization in North Africa, Rome was able to turn the Mediterranean into a "Roman lake".

Rome is a conservative tradition, but it is magnificent, and its own development is epic.

First, the time and space background of ancient Roman civilization

1, geographical environment and the establishment of the city of Rome

(1) Geographical environment. Italy was the center of ancient Rome. Geographically, it looks like a boot-shaped peninsula. The whole area is the Apennines. There is a fertile Po plain in the north. Northwest of Po River Plain is the majestic Alps. The Italian peninsula is surrounded by the sea on three sides. Compared with the situation around the Greek peninsula, there are few islands in the three seas in the Italian peninsula, which basically exist in isolation, which brings inconvenience to the development of commerce and navigation. Italy is rich in water resources: Po River in the north, Tiber River in the middle and Arno River in Ida larrea. The ancient Roman countries were established and developed with Rome as the center.

The geographical features of the Italian peninsula have a great influence on the development of Roman history. Italy doesn't have many mineral resources. Although its coastline is very long, there are not many places that can be used as good ports. On the other hand, Italy has more fertile land than Greece. Therefore, the Romans have always been a nation dominated by agriculture. The Apennines, which run through the whole territory, are also conducive to political unity. In addition, compared with Greece, the Italian peninsula is more vulnerable to foreign invasion. The Alps can't effectively stop the influx of ethnic groups from Central Europe, and the low altitude of the coast in many places attracts conquest from the sea. Almost from the beginning of their settlement in Italy, the Romans were keen on military activities because they had to resist other invaders.

② Residents before the birth of Rome. As early as the Stone Age, people lived on the Italian peninsula. By the beginning of 2000 BC, the Greeks went south to the Aegean region, and the Indo-European speaking tribes entered all parts of the Italian peninsula along the Danube in the northeast and advanced along some passes in the Alps. Among them, some tribes who settled in Latim Plain of Tiber River Basin are called Latins. There have been some walled castles where Latin people live, and Rome on the Tiber River is one of them.

(3) Idalari subculture. Around the 9th century BC, an eastern tribe named Etruscan (also translated as Therus Kans) entered Italy from Asia Minor. The advanced civilization of the Eastern Mediterranean was brought to Italy by the Idarians. In the 6th century BC, Ida larrea had established a city alliance, which extended to most parts of northern and central Italy. At this time, the Idarian people had a high culture and mastered certain production techniques. They have been able to make exquisite pottery and bronzes, and industry and commerce have also developed and prospered. With navy and merchant fleet, their foreign trade is quite extensive and their art and culture are relatively developed (tombs, murals, temples, sculptures, etc.). ).

From the second half of the 8th century BC, the Greeks migrated to southern Italy and Sicily, and successively established many city states, such as Tarrington and Syracuse. Around 500 BC, Idaho people were defeated by Latin people.

(4) the origin of Rome. There is a touching legend about the origin and rise of Rome: the story of romulo and remus (the son of Sylvia and Mars). Traditionally, Rome was founded in 753 BC, which is regarded as the era of Rome, and so on. According to the records of Roman writer Valo (1 16-27), the foundation stone laying date of Rome was between 754 BC and 753 BC. Later, the ancient Romans used to take 753 BC as the date.

April 2 1 day is the era.

However, modern archaeological discoveries and recent research results show that Rome may have been built in the 6th century BC, that is, in the early days of Idaho rule. Many historians agree that the rule of Ida Larrea was the beginning of the establishment and development of Rome. In this process, Idaho people brought their advanced political system and cultural tradition to Rome.

Third, the lost civilization: Babylon

The earliest civilization in the world-Mesopotamia (Greek means land between two rivers). Civilization (also called "Two Rivers Civilization") originated in Sumer region (middle and lower reaches), a valley between Tigris River and Euphrates River. Mesopotamia was the seat of Babylon, which is in today's Iraq.

From 4000 BC to 2250 BC, the civilization of the two rivers reached its peak, which was called "the land of Shinar" in the Old Testament. The fertile soil piled up on both sides of the two rivers is called "fertile crescent zone" in history (South America, which is as famous as the "Golden Triangle", is called "evil crescent zone"). Because the two rivers will not flood regularly like the Nile, it is necessary to observe the astronomical phenomena to determine the time. Su, who lives in the lower reaches, invented the lunar calendar, divided a year into 12 months and ***354 days based on the moon's profit and loss, and invented the leap month, placing 1 1 day different from the solar calendar. Divide an hour into 60 minutes and take 7 days as a week. He can also calculate fractions, add, subtract, multiply and divide, solve quadratic equations with one variable, and invent 10 decimal method and 16 decimal method. They divided the circle into 360 degrees until π was close to 3. Even calculate the area of irregular polygons and the volume of some cones.

In 4000 BC, Ren Sumei first invented hieroglyphics with ideographic and signifier symbols, because most of these characters were carved on bricks, stones or black basalt. On the clay tablet, "the pen is heavy and the imprint is deep", which looks like a wedge, so it is called cuneiform writing.

The hanging gardens in Babylon are one of the seven wonders of the world. Legend has it that this garden was built for the princess by the king at that time.

Later, the Nile civilization and the Indus civilization developed under the impetus of the two river civilizations. The Greeks learned mathematics, physics and philosophy from there; Jews learned theology from there and spread it all over the world; Arabs learned architecture from there and used it to educate the whole medieval savage Europe.

Around 2000 BC, the Amorites established the Kingdom of Babylon, with Babylon as its capital. In 1792 BC, Hammurabi ascended the throne, conquered Sumerians and Akkadians, unified the Mesopotamian plain, and promulgated the code of hammurabi, which was the first relatively complete written code in the world, but it was not the earliest, and the earliest was called the Ullner Code. There are 282 code of hammurabi, carved on a 2.25-meter-high black basalt pillar. ..

In 689 BC, the kingdom of Babylon was destroyed by Assyria. In 605 BC, the new kingdom of Babylon destroyed Assyria. Later, Templars came to power and were finally wiped out by Persia in the Iranian plateau in 538 BC. The civilization of the ancient two river basins ended as an independent whole.

Fourth, the lost civilization: the Jewish kingdom

Jewish kingdom

Kingdom of Judah, an ancient Hebrew country in southern Palestine. It was founded at the beginning of 1 millennium BC and was destroyed by the new king Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon in 586 BC. The capital is in Jerusalem.

Hebrews belong to Sem language family and entered Palestine in the second half of the second Millennium BC. At the end of 13 BC, they changed from nomadism to settlement and gradually conquered the Canaanites living here. The struggle with the Philistines in 1 1 century BC promoted the emergence of the Hebrew state. After ten beloved Israeli kings in the north died in the battle with the Philistines, the Jewish king David (reigned from 1000 BC to 960 BC) elected by two southern departments continued this cause. David unified Palestine, completely defeated the Philistines, and then conquered the rest of the Canaanite settlements, with Jerusalem as its capital, and established a unified Israeli-Jewish kingdom. Due to the huge difference between the north and the south of ancient Palestine, the rising rulers of the south levied more taxes on the north, which led to the intensification of the contradiction between the north and the south. In 922 BC, after the death of King Solomon, the son of David, the kingdom was divided and the northern part was the kingdom of Israel. In the south is the kingdom of Judea, with Rehoboam as the king and Jerusalem as the capital. During the period from Rehoboam to Amaziah (about 934 BC to about 783 BC), the country declined and once surrendered to Israel. During the reign of Hu Xi (about 7965438 BC+0 ~ 739 BC), the country became strong and once became the leader of the western anti-Assyrian alliance. In 722 BC, after Israel was destroyed by Assyria, the Jewish kingdom was preserved after paying a large ransom and became the only remaining Hebrew country. Hezekiah, who succeeded to the throne in 7 15 BC, carried out religious and political reforms and abolished idolatry of foreign religions, which had a great influence on the formation of monotheistic Judaism. He also joined the anti-Assyrian alliance. In 70 1 BC, when sinatra cribb, king of Assyria, attacked Palestine, Hezekiah was besieged in Jerusalem and had to yield to Assyria. Josiah, the great grandson of Hezekiah (reigned from 640 BC to 609 BC), took advantage of the decline of Assyria to expand the scope of his rule, promulgated laws at home, carried out a thorough religious reform, practiced monotheism of worshipping Jehovah, and took the Jehovah's Temple in Jerusalem as the only religious center in the country, which had a far-reaching influence in the history of Hebrew origin. After Josiah, the Jewish kings tried to use the contradiction between the new kingdom of Babylon and Egypt to protect themselves, and the country went into decline. In 598 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, kidnapped King jehoiachin and many noble craftsmen, and made Josiah's second son Zedekiah (reigned from 597 BC to 587 BC) a puppet. In 586 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II went down to Jerusalem again, destroyed the Jewish kingdom and moved a large number of Jewish subjects to Babylon, known as "Babylonian prisoners" in history. Since then, the Jewish region has been under the rule of the Persian Empire and ancient Macedonia.

During the reign of David and Solomon, they controlled the trade routes passing through Palestine, managed trade, and had business contacts with Egypt, the two river basins and all parts of the Arabian Peninsula, and the national economy was greatly developed. In domestic class relations, Jews are free men, including slave owners and poor non-slave owners. Followed by foreign family members and handmaiden who are close to slaves. After the 8th century BC, the polarization between the rich and the poor was serious, which led to the slave riots in the 7th century BC. With the development of economy, the state institutions are becoming more and more perfect, and David's officials also have a special division of labor. Solomon designated the 12 district in China to collect taxes, and put people in charge. Aristocratic politics was practiced in the center of the kingdom, and besides the king, there were meetings of elders and people, which existed until the demise of the Jewish kingdom.

Fifth, the lost civilization: Inca.

Before Europeans arrived in America, Indians created some highly developed ancient civilizations on the American continent with their diligence and wisdom. These civilizations are not inferior to some ancient civilizations in the eastern hemisphere in some aspects, and even in a leading position. Just like the situation in the Eastern Hemisphere, there are several famous ancient civilizations in America, namely, the Aztec civilization in Mexico, the Mayan civilization in northern Central America, the Inca civilization in Peru and the Chibcha civilization in Colombia.

Inca civilization is another famous ancient Indian civilization developed in western South America and central Andes. Its influence ranges from the Kasma River in southern Colombia to the Maurer River in central Chile in the south, with a total length of 4,800 kilometers and its widest point of 500 kilometers from east to west, with a total area of more than 900,000 square kilometers and a population of 10. Generally speaking, it includes the mountains of Ecuador, the mountains of Peru, the plateau of Bolivia, half of Chile and the northwest of Argentina.

According to the research of archaeologists, this vast area was the first area where agriculture appeared in America, about 8000 BC. By 3000 BC, residents in coastal areas had settled down. By the end of 2000 BC, a series of ancient cultural centers had appeared in the central Andes. In the middle and lower period of BC 1000, agricultural culture was developed. It has formed, laid the foundation of Inca civilization, and appeared the earliest form of class and state. This marks the beginning of civilization. /kloc-in the second half of the 0/0 century, various cultures infiltrated and merged in the central Andes. It led to the decline and disappearance of some original cultures, and on this basis, it formed various cultural foundations before India joined the unified Central Andes.

Inca civilization was named after the Inca people unified the central Andes and established the Inca Empire. The Incas were originally a tribe living in Lake Titicaca. /kloc-after the 0/0 century, it gradually moved northward and fought all the way. 1243, they came to Cuzco today and set up a camp on Wanakali Mountain. According to the legend of Indian accession to the throne, their leader at this time was Manqu Qhapaq. From Manqu Qhapaq to 1532, Atahualpa, the last leader of the Incas, was killed by Spanish conqueror Pizarro. The Inca country experienced a whole three centuries of development, and the name * * * was passed on to the kings of 12 and 13.

The Inca country was originally named "Tavanting Su Long", which means the land in all directions, and its capital is Cuzco. The whole country is divided into four administrative regions, named "Su Long". They are: Chincha Su Long in the northwest, including Ecuador, northern and central Peru; The southwest direction is called Couty Su Long, including southern Peru and northern Chile; The northeast is called Antioch Su Long, including the eastern forest and the area around the WuKaiali River; In the southeast, it is called Coya Su Long, with the largest area, including most of Bolivia, the mountainous area in the northwest of Argentina and half of Chile.

The word "Inca" originally meant "leader" or "king" and was the supreme ruler of Tawanding Sulong. After the arrival of the Spanish, it has become a common practice to simply use the word "Inca" to address this country and its residents.

The Inca Empire is called "Rome of America", and it is famous for having a whole set of state machines. Inca is a slave country, and the slave owners include Inca kings, royal nobles, senior officials and priests. They don't engage in productive labor and live a luxurious life. The Inca king is called the son of the sun, the incarnation of God, and has supreme power, monopolizing all political, military and religious power of the country. In order to maintain his rule, the Inca Wang Jian established a political system centered on centralization. He firmly controlled the country with Skopje as the center and officials at all levels. In addition to political institutions, Inca slave owners also had a well-trained standing army of 200,000 people, which was used for the rebels' external expansion and internal repression. The Inca Empire also established a strict judicial system to safeguard the interests of slave owners. In order to consolidate his rule, the Inca king also took some cultural and economic measures. For example, for those newly conquered areas, the Quechua language was forcibly promoted. In addition, in Daxing Road and Fan Shi Station all over the country, a road traffic network leading to Beijing has been established with Cuzco as the center, so as to control remote areas conveniently.

The Incas can establish such a vast country in the middle of the Andes, which is inseparable from the developed economy and culture there.

In agriculture, the Incas inherited the achievements of their predecessors and built canals and terraces in arid and water-deficient mountainous areas, which made the grain production develop steadily and ensured the needs of non-agricultural population. The canals and terraces of the Incas were very strong, and some canals are still in use today. The Incas planted about 40 kinds of crops. They also raised llamas and alpacas, making them the only American Indians who raised large livestock. The breeding of these animals not only provides people with meat and fur, but also provides high-quality fertilizers for agricultural production, thus promoting the increase of grain output.

The transportation network extending in all directions not only facilitated the Inca king's rule over the whole country, but also promoted the contact and cultural exchange between regions. The roads built by the Incas are world-famous. There are two main roads running through the country from north to south: one is along the Andes, starting from southern Colombia, passing through Ecuador and Peru, entering Bolivia and leading to Argentina, with a total length of 3,200 kilometers; The other is along the Pacific coast, starting from Tombes in the northwest of Peru, with a total length of 2.300 kilometers and a road width of 3.5-4.5 meters. It is not easy to build such a road in the Andes with rolling mountains and ravines. Depending on the terrain, the road sometimes twists and turns, sometimes you have to dig stairs and tunnels, and sometimes you have to build bridges. India doesn't know about vault yet, and their bridges are mainly suspension bridges. Stone pillars are erected at both ends of the bridge, which are connected by five vines 40 cm thick, of which three are auxiliary decks. There is a railing on each side. Some suspension bridges are more than 60 meters long.

The metal processing industry of the Incas was relatively developed. They not only know how to smelt gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and mercury, but also can smelt various alloys and know how to purify gold with mercury. Gold and silver are mainly used to make decorations and works of art. One of them is a golden butterfly. Its wings are only110 mm thick, and its center of gravity is very accurate. After being thrown, it can still hover in the air. Copper and its alloys are mainly used to make weapons, daily utensils and sharp tools. However, like other Indians in the United States, Indians never knew iron. The Incas mastered a variety of metalworking techniques, such as casting, forging, molding, stamping, inlaying, riveting and welding. Some studies believe that the skills of Inca gold and silver ornaments can be comparable to those of the European Renaissance.

India's textile technology has also reached a higher level. As early as 2000 BC, they could spin. Their wool and cotton fabrics are of various colors, harmonious colors and fine workmanship. For example, a carpet left over from lO00 years ago contains 500 cashmere yarns per inch, while similar fabrics in medieval Europe only have 100. The mummy clothes unearthed near pisco on the south coast are called "one of the textile wonders of the world".

The pottery industry also developed during the Inca Empire. The main characteristics of pottery are striking polishing technology, elegant decoration, beautiful geometric patterns and gorgeous colors. They not only absorbed the experience of predecessors and other regions in the same period in the production technology and decorative patterns of pottery, but also made further development.

In medicine, the achievements of the Incas are also amazing. Their surgical operations, especially craniotomy, were at the advanced level in the world at that time. The scalpel is mainly T-shaped copper knife, which is very sharp. Incas are also anesthesiologists who accompany surgery. The Incas knew many kinds of herbs, such as quinine and cocoa.

In the fields of astronomy, calendar and mathematics, India's participation has also reached a fairly high level. In Cuzco, the capital, the Incas built four astronomical observatories in the east and west of the city, and another one in the central square. According to long-term observation, the Incas calculated that the earth's running cycle was 365 days and 6 hours, and made the solar calendar accordingly. Another Inca calendar is the lunar calendar, which includes 354 days and is based on the observation of the moon. Unlike the Aztecs and Mayans, the Incas used the decimal system of 10 in mathematics. However, the Incas have not yet created characters. Their counting method is knotting, which is called "kip" in Quechua language, that is, many small ropes are tied to a main rope, numbers are represented by nodules, and different colors and lengths are used to represent different categories.

Incas also have high attainments in music and literature. Some people think that Inca music can rival or even surpass ancient European folk songs; Others believe that Inca music has the level of ancient Asian music and similar expressions. Because the Incas did not have a complete writing system, literature was mostly oral legends and plays. The most famous one is Oyantai, which was widely spread in the central Andes before the arrival of the Spanish, and was written in Quechua (created by Spanish missionaries) in the early colonial period, occupying an important position in the world classical literature.