Immigrants to Germany

1. The earth is an irregular sphere with slightly flattened poles, with an average diameter of 637 1 m.

On the globe, the circle around the globe in the east-west direction is called the latitude line. All latitudes are circles, which can be called latitude circles; The length of latitude circle is long or short, the equator is the longest, it gradually shortens to the poles and finally reaches a point. The latitude represents the east and west directions. The equator is the longest latitude, about 40 thousand kilometers long. It is equal to the distance between the two poles and divides the earth into two hemispheres. The equator is zero latitude on the earth. The latitude north of the equator is called north latitude, and it is customary to use "n" as the code name; The latitude south of the equator, called south latitude, is customarily represented by "S".

On the globe, the line connecting the north and south poles and perpendicular to the latitude is called meridian, also called meridian. All meridians are semicircular; They are all of the same length, indicating the north-south direction. The zero meridian on the earth is called the prime meridian. It is divided into 1800 from the prime meridian to the east and west. 1800 in the east belongs to east longitude, so it is customary to use "e" as the code, and 1800 in the west belongs to west longitude, so it is customary to use "w" as the code. It is customary in the world to use warp circles of 200W and 1600E as the dividing line between the eastern and western hemispheres.

The earth keeps rotating around its axis, which is called earth rotation, and the direction of earth rotation is from west to east. It takes about 24 hours to turn around, which is one day. In this way, the phenomenon of alternating day and night is produced.

5. The revolution of the earth and seasonal changes The earth revolves around the sun while rotating. The direction of the earth's revolution is also from west to east, and the time of revolution is one year. The orbital plane always keeps an angle of 66.5 with the earth axis. Because of the revolution of the earth, there are seasonal changes.

6. The tropics are between the Tropic of Cancer, and there is direct sunshine every year. The ground gets the most sunlight and heat, and the climate is hot all year round. The Tropic of Cancer is the dividing line between tropical and temperate zones. The cold zone is located in the area north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, and it is extreme day and night. Polar circle is the dividing line between cold zone and temperate zone. In temperate regions between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, and between the Tropic of Cancer and the Antarctic Circle, there are no extreme days and nights in a year, and the solar light and heat obtained on the ground are less than those in tropical regions and more than those in cold regions, and the climate changes obviously in the four seasons.

7. Scale, legend and notes of the three elements of the map. The smaller the area drawn on the map, the more detailed the content to be represented and the larger the scale to be selected; On the contrary, the smaller the scale. On the map, it is usually "up north and down south, left west and right east"

8. The vertical distance above sea level of a place on the ground is called altitude. The vertical distance from one place to another is called relative height.

9. Contour lines connect points with the same altitude, which is the contour line. Each contour line has a corresponding height value. Where the slope is steep, the contour lines are dense; Where the slope is gentle, the contour lines are sparse.

10, the ocean area accounts for 7 1% on the earth, while the land area only accounts for 29%. The mainland and its nearby islands are called the mainland. The northern hemisphere is Europe and North America. Most people are used to taking the Urals, ural river and the Great Caucasus as the dividing line between Europe and Asia. Suez Canal is the dividing line between Asia and Africa. The Panama Canal is the dividing line between North America and South America. Antarctica is mainly located in the Antarctic circle, surrounded by the ocean.

1 1. land topography people divide the terrain into five basic types: mountains, plains, plateaus, basins and hills.

The altitude of mountainous areas is relatively high, generally more than 500 meters, with undulating peaks and steep slopes, and some mountainous areas are distributed in strips. Among them, the most prominent are two huge mountain systems composed of several tall mountains: one is the Alps-Himalayas mountain system across the south-central part of the Eurasian continent; The other is the Cordillera mountain system, which runs through North and South America, and consists of Rocky Mountain, Andes Mountain and other mountains.

The altitude of the plain is low, generally below 200 meters, and the ground is flat or undulating. It is often used to describe the "endless" elegance of the plain. The largest plain in the world is the Amazon Plain in South America.

The terrain in Europe and Africa is relatively simple, mainly plains and plateaus; The terrain in Asia is complex, with high terrain in the middle and low periphery, wide plateaus and mountains, and plains distributed around the mainland.

12. The forces that push the terrain change are called internal forces, such as crustal movement, volcano, earthquake, etc., which are all manifestations of the internal forces of the earth. Volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are mostly distributed in areas with active crustal activity, mainly concentrated in the Pacific Rim and the Mediterranean-Himalayan Mountains. Forces from outside the earth are called external forces, such as running water, wind, waves and glaciers.

13. Weather is the atmospheric condition of a place in a short time, such as sunny, rainy, hot and cold. It is always changing. Climate is the average weather condition of a place for many years, which generally changes little.

The temperature rises and falls during the day. The highest temperature on land usually appears in the afternoon (about14); The lowest temperature appears around sunrise. In a year, the monthly average maximum temperature in most parts of the world appears in July in the northern hemisphere and 65438+ 10 in the southern hemisphere. The monthly average minimum temperature appears in 1 in the northern hemisphere and in July in the southern hemisphere. The difference between the highest monthly average temperature and the lowest monthly average temperature in a place is called annual range.

15, the world temperature gradually decreases from low latitude to polar region; At the same latitude, the temperatures of the ocean and the land are different. In summer, the land temperature is high and the ocean temperature is low. Winter is the opposite. The temperature is also affected by the terrain. As the altitude increases in mountainous areas, the temperature will gradually decrease. About every increase of 100 m, the temperature will drop by 0.6℃.

16, the general law of global precipitation distribution: there is more precipitation near the equator; Less precipitation in polar regions; On both sides of the Tropic of Cancer, there is less precipitation on the west coast of the mainland and more precipitation on the east coast of the mainland; There is more precipitation in mid-latitude coastal areas and less precipitation in inland areas.

17, perennial rainy area: there is a lot of monthly precipitation near the equator, such as Singapore; There is no rain all year round: there is little monthly precipitation in inland areas and polar regions, such as Cairo, Egypt; Rainy areas in summer: the east coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in summer and rainy in winter, such as China; Rainy areas in winter: the west coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in winter and rainy in summer, such as Rome, Italy; Perennial humid area: on the west coast of the mainland at 400 ~ 600 north latitude, the area affected by the westerly wind from the ocean all the year round is humid every month with moderate rainfall, such as London, England.

18, main climate types and distribution in the world

I. Main tropical climate types

1. The tropical rain forest climate is mainly distributed near the equator, with high temperature and rainy all year round.

2. The tropical grassland climate is mainly distributed in the north and south sides of the equatorial rainforest climate in Africa and South America. It is hot all year round, with obvious dry season and rainy season.

3. The tropical monsoon climate is most obvious in the Indian Peninsula and Indochina Peninsula in the south and southeast of Asia. This climate is hot all year round, and a year can also be divided into dry season and rainy season, and the wind direction changes with the seasons. In dry season, the wind blows from land to sea, and there is little rain; In the rainy season, the wind blows from the ocean to the land, and the precipitation is concentrated.

4. The tropical desert climate is mainly distributed in the west coast and inland areas of the mainland near the Tropic of Cancer. This climate is characterized by scarce precipitation, hot and dry all year round, and a large desert on the ground.

Second, the main climate types in temperate zone

1, temperate and subtropical monsoon climate, distributed in eastern Asia. Summer is hot and rainy, and winter is cold and dry. Roughly bounded by the isotherm of 65438+ 10, the average temperature in June is 0℃, with temperate monsoon climate in the north and subtropical monsoon climate in the south.

2. The Mediterranean climate is mainly located in the middle and low latitudes on the west coast of the mainland, with the most distribution along the Mediterranean coast, hot and dry in summer and mild and rainy in winter.

3. Temperate continental climate is mainly distributed in mid-latitude inland areas, with intense heat in winter, great temperature change, less precipitation and concentrated in summer.

4. The temperate maritime climate is located on the west coast of the mid-latitude continent, which is the most widely distributed in western Europe, mild and rainy, and the annual changes of temperature and precipitation are relatively small.

19. Land, sunshine, water, minerals, forests, etc. Resources that are valuable to human beings are all natural resources. According to the characteristics of its formation, it can be divided into two categories: one is renewable resources; First, non-renewable resources. Renewable resources refer to resources that can be regenerated or recovered in a short time; Non-renewable resources refer to resources that cannot be produced after being used up in human history.

20. Land use types can be divided into cultivated land, woodland, grassland, construction land and other types.

2 1, the temperate humid plain is flat and warm, which is suitable for developing agriculture and is the main distribution area of cultivated land in the world. Large areas of coniferous forests and rainforests are preserved in the cold and humid sub-frigid zone and the hot and rainy tropical zone. Tropical and temperate semi-arid areas have vast grasslands, which are the main distribution areas of animal husbandry in the world.

There are three main forms of water on the earth: sea water, land water and atmospheric water. There are many forms of land water, such as glacier water, groundwater, lake water, swamp water, river water and biological water. There is a lot of water on the earth, but more than 96% is seawater. Among the fresh water resources, glaciers store the most water, and now people use a lot of fresh water resources, mainly river water, lake water (fresh water lake water) and part of groundwater. The main ways to protect water resources are: saving and rational use of water and reducing the waste of water resources; Preventing and controlling water pollution; Afforestation to prevent soil erosion; Desalinate seawater and expand fresh water sources.

23. The forest in Nature's General Dispatching Room has the functions of regulating atmospheric composition, purifying air, implicating water sources, increasing air humidity, protecting fields from wind and maintaining soil and water. Therefore, people call the forest "the general adjustment room of nature". There are 4 billion hectares of forests in the world, mainly coniferous forests and broad-leaved forests. Most of the global forest resources are distributed in the northern hemisphere.

24. The population growth rate in the world is different, especially in different continents. Africa is the fastest growing continent in the world, followed by South America, and Europe is the slowest. 2% in Europe; Asia15%; North America is10%; South America is17%; Oceania is14%; Africa is 27%.

25. After the Second World War, the scale of population migration became smaller, and population migration mainly took three forms. The first type is scientific and technological migration, that is, a large number of high-quality talents flow from developing countries to developed countries. The second is the export of labor force. The basic direction of foreign labor flow is from developing countries to developed countries, from poor countries to rich oil exporting countries, and from densely populated families to sparsely populated countries. The third is international refugee migration.

26. Eastern and southern Asia, Europe and eastern North America are the most densely populated areas, and the densely populated areas are mainly located in the plains near the middle and low latitudes. In cold tundra zone, ice sheet belt, vast cold coniferous forest belt, undeveloped tropical rain forest belt, arid desert area, high plateau, mountainous area and sparsely populated area.

27. The proportion of a country's urban population to the total population is often one of the criteria for measuring a country's development level. More than 70% of the population in developed countries is urban, while the urban population in developing countries accounts for just over 30% of the population. Nowadays, the phenomenon of large-scale migration of rural population to cities mainly occurs in developing countries.

28. White people generally have light skin color, eyes and hair color, curly hair, high nose, thin lips and more body hair. They are mainly distributed in Europe, North America and Oceania. Yellow people have light yellow or brownish black skin, straight black hair, flat face and medium body hair. They are mainly distributed in East Asia. Black people have dark skin, curly hair, thick lips and little body hair. They are mainly distributed in Africa, Oceania and the United States.

29. There are more than 190 countries in the world, and the areas of famous countries are different. The largest Russia has170,000 square kilometers. China ranks third with an area of about 9.6 million square kilometers. The smallest is the Vatican.

30. Land, territorial sea, territorial waters and airspace within national boundaries are collectively referred to as territory.

biology

1, biological * * * same characteristics: 1. Living things need nutrition. 2. Living things can breathe. 3. Organisms can excrete wastes produced in the body. 4. Organisms can respond to external stimuli. 5. Organisms can grow and reproduce. 6. Apart from viruses, living things are made up of cells.

2. Classification of organisms: (1) According to morphological and structural characteristics, organisms are divided into animals, plants and other organisms; (2) According to the living environment, organisms are divided into terrestrial organisms; And aquatic organisms (3) are divided into crops, poultry, domestic animals and pets according to their uses.

3. Biosphere: The place suitable for living things on the earth is actually just a thin layer on its surface. This thin layer, called biosphere, is about 20 kilometers thick and includes the bottom of the atmosphere, most of the hydrosphere and the surface of the lithosphere.

4. Basic conditions provided by biosphere for living things: All living things, such as animals and plants, need the same basic conditions. They all need nutrition, sunshine, air and water, as well as suitable temperature and a certain living space.

5. Environmental factors affecting biological life:

(1) Effects of abiotic factors on living things: The life span of living things will be affected by abiotic factors. When one or several factors in the environment change dramatically, it will affect the life of living things and even lead to their death. Mainly light, temperature, moisture, air and so on.

(2) Biological factors: predation, competition and cooperation.

6. Ecosystem: In a certain area, the unified whole formed by biology and environment is called ecosystem. There are producers (plants), consumers (animals) and decomposers (microorganisms).

7, food chain and food web:

(1) The relationship between producers and consumers is mainly the relationship between eating and being eaten, thus forming a food chain.

(2) In an ecosystem, there are often many food chains, which are intertwined to form a food web.

(3) The matter and energy in the ecosystem flow along the food chain and food web. The energy entering the ecosystem is the solar energy fixed by plants through photosynthesis, that is to say, energy is stored in plants in the form of organic matter, and energy is gradually consumed by many organisms during the flow of the food chain. That is, energy gradually decreases in the energy flow and cannot be circulated. The material flow is also gradually decreasing, but it can be recycled.

(4) The biological system has a certain ability of automatic adjustment. In the ecosystem, toxic substances will accumulate through the food chain. However, the regulatory capacity of the ecosystem is limited, beyond which the ecosystem will face collapse.

8. Composition of ecosystem:

Abiotic parts: sunlight, moisture, air, etc.

Biological part: producer-plant: can make organic matter through photosynthesis.

Consumers-animals: can't make organic matter by themselves, and eat plants directly or indirectly.

Decomposer-Fungi and Bacteria: Decompose organic matter into simple materials.

9. Various ecosystems: forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, marine ecosystem, fresh water ecosystem, wetland ecosystem, farmland ecosystem and urban ecosystem.

10, the biosphere is a unified whole: every ecosystem is related to other ecosystems around it: from abiotic factors, from regional relations, from organisms in the ecosystem.

1 1. The biosphere is the largest ecosystem on earth.

12, practice using microscope.

① Take and place the mirror: hold the mirror arm with the right hand and the mirror base with the right hand, and place the microscope on the test bench about 7 cm away from the edge, slightly to the left. Install eyepiece and objective lens.

(2) aiming: turn the converter to aim the low-power objective at the light hole (the front end of the objective should keep a distance of 2 cm from the stage), and aim the larger aperture at the light hole. Look at the eyepiece with one eye and open the other. Rotate the reflector to make the light reflect into the lens barrel through the light hole. You can see a bright circular view through the eyepiece.

③ Observation: Put all the glass slide specimens to be observed on the stage, and press them with a tabletting clamp, with the specimens facing the center of the light hole. Turn the coarse focusing screw to slowly lower the lens barrel until the objective lens is close to the slide specimen (eyes must be on the objective lens at this time). Look at the eyepiece with one eye, and turn the coarse focusing screw counterclockwise at the same time, so that the lens barrel rises slowly until the object can be seen clearly. Turn the fine focus screw slightly to make the image of the object clearer.

Note: (1) The image observed by microscope is an enlarged and inverted real image.

(2) The magnification of microscope = the magnification of eyepiece × the magnification of objective lens.

(3) The larger the magnification, the fewer the number of cells observed by the microscope, and the clearer the morphological structure.

(4) Possible positions of foreign bodies: eyepiece, objective lens and slide specimen.

13, commonly used slide specimens are: slice-made of thin slices cut from organisms;

Smear-made of liquid biomaterial smear;

Load-made of a small amount of material torn or taken out of an organism.

14. Preparation method of temporary slices of onion skin:

(1) Wipe the slide with clean gauze and cover the glass.

(2) Drop a drop of water in the center of the slide with a dropper.

(3) Tear a small piece of transparent film-inner epidermis from the inside of onion scales with tweezers, immerse the torn inner epidermis in the water drops of the glass slide, and flatten it with tweezers.

(4) Pick up the cover glass with tweezers, so that one side of the cover glass first contacts the water drops on the glass slide, and then slowly put it down and cover it on the material to be observed, so as to avoid the bubbles under the cover glass from affecting the observation.

(5) Drop a drop of dilute iodine solution on one side of the cover glass.

(6) Absorb from the other side of the cover glass with absorbent paper to make the dye solution soak the whole specimen.

15, plant cell structure

Cell wall: it is the outermost transparent thin wall that protects and supports cells.

Cell membrane: A very thin membrane near the inside of the cell wall.

Nucleus: Plant cells are approximately spherical.

Cytoplasm: Structure inside the cell membrane but outside the nucleus.

There are vacuoles in the cytoplasm, many substances are dissolved in the cytosol of vacuoles, and chloroplasts are also found in the cytoplasm of green cells of plants. Animal cells have no chloroplasts, cell walls and vacuoles.

16, method of making temporary human oral epithelial cells:

(1) Wipe the slide with clean gauze and cover the glass.

(2) Drop a drop of physiological saline (0.9%) in the center of the slide with a dropper.

(3) Gently scrape the sterilized toothpick on the inner side wall of the oral cavity.

(4) Put the splintered end of the toothpick on the glass slide and smear it with normal saline for several times.

(5) Pick up the cover glass with tweezers, so that one side of the cover glass first contacts the water drops on the glass slide, and then slowly put it down and cover it on the material to be observed, so as to avoid the bubbles under the cover glass from affecting the observation.

(6) Drop a drop of dilute iodine solution on one side of the cover glass. Absorb from the other side of the cover glass with absorbent paper, so that the dye solution can soak the whole specimen.

17, animal cell pattern diagram, plant cell pattern diagram.

The main difference between animal cells and plant cells is that animal cells have no cell walls, chloroplasts and vacuoles.

18. What is the substance in the cell? Many substances are made up of molecules.

Inorganic substances: molecules are relatively small and generally contain no carbon, such as water, inorganic salts and oxygen.

Organic matter: molecules are relatively large and generally contain carbon, such as sugars, lipids, protein, nucleic acids, etc.

Cells produce some wastes in life, such as urea and carbon dioxide.

19, cell membrane controls the entry and exit of substances.

20. There are energy converters in the cytoplasm.

Chloroplast converts light energy into chemical energy and stores it in the organic matter it produces.

Mitochondria use some organic substances in cells as fuel, combine with oxygen, and transform into carbon dioxide and water through complex processes, and at the same time release chemical energy from organic substances for cells to use.

2 1, there is a substance for storing genetic information in the nucleus-DNA, the carrier of genetic information, and its structure is like a spiral staircase. DNA molecules are very long. It can be divided into many fragments, and each fragment has specific genetic information. These fragments are called genes. DNA and protein form chromosomes.

22. Cells divide to produce new cells: the growth of organisms from small to large is inseparable from the growth and division of cells. But cells can't grow indefinitely, and some cells will divide when they grow to a certain size.

23. Cell division process and chromosome changes: The nucleus consists of many chromosomes. When cells don't divide, chromosomes are scattered in the nucleus like filaments, which is called chromatin. When cells divide, chromatin is condensed into chromosomes, which are rod-shaped and divided into two cells. Chromosomes consist of DNA and protein. The chromosome morphology and number of the new cell are the same as those of the original cell, which ensures that the genetic material of the new cell is the same as that of the original cell.

24. Cell differentiation to form tissue: Cells with similar morphology, structure and function are combined to form a cell group called tissue.

The basic tissues of animals include:

Epithelial tissue: composed of epithelial cells, with protective and secretory functions, distributed on the body surface and the inner surfaces of various lumens.

Muscle tissue: composed of muscle cells, it has contraction and relaxation functions, including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.

Nerve tissue: composed of nerve cells, it can generate and conduct excitement and is distributed in the nervous system.

Connective tissue: it plays the role of support, connection, protection and nutrition.

Tissue further forms organs, organ composition systems and human bodies.

25. Eight systems of human body: motor system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, urinary system, nervous system, endocrine system and reproductive system. These eight systems coordinate with each other, so that all kinds of complex life activities in the human body can be carried out normally.

26. The structural level of plants: fertilized eggs undergo cell division and differentiation to form tissues and organs, and then form plants.

Green flowering plants have six organs: roots, stems, leaves (vegetative flowers), fruits and seeds (development).

Several main organizations of plants: meristem, conservation organization, nutrition organization, transportation organization, etc.

27. Single-celled organisms: organisms with only one cell in the body, such as yeast, paramecium, Chlamydomonas, eupolyphaga, amoeba and paramecium.

28, observing paramecium experimental method steps:

(1) Suck a drop of culture solution from the surface of paramecium culture solution (there is more oxygen here, and paramecium accumulates more), put it on a glass slide, and observe paramecium with naked eyes and a magnifying glass.

(2) Cover the cover glass and observe its movement. If the movement is too fast, you can first put a few silk cotton fibers on the droplets of the slide culture solution (to limit the movement speed of paramecium), and then cover the slide.

29. Explore the influence of salt on paramecium.

(1) Suck two or less paramecium culture solutions from the surface of paramecium culture solution with a dropper.

(2) Drop a drop of paramecium culture solution on both sides of the glass slide.

(3) Draw a line between two drops of culture solution with a dropper to connect them.

(4) Put salt on one end of paramecium culture solution on the glass slide, and observe the movement direction of paramecium.

30. Red tide: seawater pollution leads to eutrophication. Under certain conditions, algae and other plankton multiply in large numbers, which discolors the seawater. This phenomenon is called red tide.

3 1. Bloom: The phenomenon of fishy foam-like floating objects formed by algae proliferation in fresh water is called bloom.

33. Types of viruses: Viruses have no cell structure and are much smaller than cells. They can only be expressed in nanometers. The virus has many forms, such as sphere, rod, polyhedron, tadpole and so on. Viruses cannot live independently and must live in the cells of other organisms. According to their parasitic cells, viruses can be divided into three categories:

Animal virus: A virus, such as influenza virus, parasitic in human and animal cells.

Plant virus: A virus parasitic in plant cells, such as tobacco mosaic virus.

Bacterial virus: also known as phage, it is a virus parasitic in bacterial cells, such as Escherichia coli phage.

34. The structure and life of the virus: The structure of the virus is very simple, consisting of protein's shell and internal genetic material, with no cell structure. It can only be parasitic in living cells, relying on the genetic information in its own genetic material to make new viruses by using the substances in cells, which is its reproduction.

35. The basic unit of biological results and functions is the cell, and the cell theory was founded by German biologists Schleiden and Wang Shi. Its basic content is:

① Cells are organisms, and all animals and plants are developed from single cells, that is, organisms are composed of cells and their products;

② The structure and composition of all cells are basically similar;

(3) New cells are derived from existing cells;

(4) Biological diseases are caused by abnormal cell function.

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