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The evolutionary history of mankind
[Edit this paragraph] People are in the process of formation.
Australopithecus is called "man in manufacturing". Australopithecus first appeared in eastern and southern Africa, evolved from primitive apes and differentiated into lower apes (such as gibbons), higher apes (such as orangutans) and ancient apes. About120,000 years ago, the crustal movement caused a possible hominid species to form on the land in eastern Africa (for reference only) and a rift valley appeared. The formation of the Rift Valley divides Africa into two independent animal systems, East and West. This barrier has become the key for people and apes to part ways. The western part of the rift valley is still thick and humid bushes. Apes don't need to make much changes to adapt to the little changed environment, so they are destined to be in the stage of apes, such as gorillas. Due to the crustal changes in the eastern part of the rift valley, the rainfall gradually decreased, the woodland disappeared, the grassland appeared, and most of the ancestors of the present apes became extinct. A few apes used to climbing adapted to the new environment, learned to move on the ground and live in an open environment, forming a unique evolutionary model and avoiding the crisis of extinction. About 5-8 million years ago, some chimpanzee-like ape species successfully established founder groups around the rainforest and in the junction with savanna, and successfully evolved into Australopithecus. When the research on the differences between protein and DNA finally established a molecular clock and found that the dividing point between humans and other animals was 5-8 million years ago (these evidences show that chimpanzees are our closest relatives), the history of primitive humans began. Australopithecus had to start bipedal walking in order to adapt to the new environment, but basically maintained the habit of arboreal. Australopithecus has not changed most of the characteristics of its ancestors, such as small size, obvious sexual dimorphism (males are 50% larger than females on average), small brain, long arms and short legs. Australopithecus is largely a herbivore. Its front teeth are much larger than those of human beings, and its molars are also very large. There are basically two types of Australopithecus (some scholars think there are 3-4 species): stout type and slender type, which vary according to their height and weight. It has been confirmed that there are two kinds of slender Australopithecus, Afa Australopithecus from Ethiopia to Tanzania and African Australopithecus from South Africa. The brains of these two species of Australopithecus are relatively small, about 430-485 cubic centimeters. The African species of Australopithecus are closer, more like humans except for the proportion of limbs. In southern Africa, Australopithecus robustus lived among robustus species, and in eastern Africa, Australopithecus baumannii, who lived 3.5 million to 3 million years ago, was also found. These stout Australopithecus are very strong, but they are very peaceful and can live in the same area as other slender Australopithecus. Anthropologists who classify primitive people according to anatomy must remember that the classified species named Afar, Homo erectus and Homo habilis do not refer to types, but to variable groups and groups within groups.
[Edit this paragraph] A fully formed person.
A fully formed person
The first human beings were called "fully formed people" in anthropology. Ancient anthropologists in China divided this process into two stages: ape-man and homo sapiens, and each stage was divided into two stages: morning and evening. Early ape-man 1470 from Kenya and "homo habilis" from Tanzania Canyon.
Late ape-man was from Java, Heidelberg, China, and Beijinger.
Early Homo sapiens, German Neanderthals, China Dingcun people.
Late Homo sapiens, French Kroma farmers and China Neanderthals.
2.5 million years ago, the climate in tropical Africa deteriorated and the ice age hit from the northern hemisphere. As the climate became drier and drier, savanna gradually turned into shrub grassland, and most Australopithecus disappeared. There are two exceptions. In one case, savanna remains in some areas where Australopithecus can survive. For example, Australopithecus can compete with two robust species. More importantly, some Australopithecus groups used their intelligence to invent some successful defense mechanisms to survive. For these defense mechanisms, people can only guess that they may throw stones or use primitive weapons made of wood and other plant materials, and they may sleep by the campfire in the wild. In fact, it was the descendants of these Australopithecus that survived and multiplied and eventually evolved into a genus of human beings, from living on trees and walking on two feet to living on land and walking on two feet.
go-getter
Homohabilis About 654.38+0.5 million years ago, a branch of Australopithecus evolved into Homo habilis, which first appeared on the east coast of Africa. Homo habilis refers to people who can make tools and are the earliest animals of human beings. Shortly after the discovery of Homo habilis fossils, people realized that the human specimens described under this name had different shapes and should not be classified as a species, while the specimens with larger brains were separated and called Homo rudolfensis. With the increase of the number of specimens found, the interpretation has also changed greatly. The name homo habilis refers to small specimens. The brains of homo habilis specimens are only 450, 500 and 600 cubic centimeters, overlapping with Australopithecus, while the brains of Shuo Zhuang people are 700 to 900 cubic centimeters, which is much larger. At first, homo habilis was thought to be the first person to use tools, but now he is thought to be a strong person. Homo habilis has been classified as a late species in Australopithecus. After hundreds of thousands of years of evolution since the Paleolithic Age, homo habilis was finally replaced by a new human species: Homo erectus. Homo habilis and its descendants have existed for some time. The earliest stone tools found in Africa, known as the Aldway culture, were originally considered to belong to capable people, but now they are considered to belong to strong people. Weight (kg) and brain capacity (g)
Macaque 4.25 66
Gorilla 126.5 506
Chimpanzee 36.4 4 10
Australopithecus afarensis 50.6 4 15
Radofen _ 700-900
Homo erectus 58.6 826
Homo sapiens 44.0 1250
Homo erectus
Homo erectus first appeared in Africa about 200 thousand to 2 million years ago, the so-called late ape-man He knew how to use fire and began to use symbols and basic languages. Homo erectus could use more exquisite tools, called asheli. There is evidence that homo erectus and strong man appeared in Africa at the same time. Ergaster (1.7 million years ago) is the earliest representative of African Homo erectus, and it is this African group that spread from Africa to Asia some time before 1.9 million years ago. About 6.5438+million years ago, with the arrival of the Ice Age, Africa began to grassland, and Homo erectus had to migrate and expand to all parts of the world, distributed in Europe, Asia and Africa (Heidelberg, Guawa ape-man and Peking ape-man all belonged to Homo erectus). The latest Homo erectus fossils found in Africa (about 654.38 million +0 billion years ago) have shown a trend of moving closer to Homo sapiens. Note: At this time, the time for human beings to leave Africa is 1. About 800,000 years ago, Homo erectus came to present-day Spain and became the earliest European. About 200,000 years ago, Homo erectus in Europe, Asia and Africa gradually disappeared and was replaced by a new species Homo sapiens from Africa.
mankind
The early Homo sapiens was about 30,000 to 250,000 years ago, and the middle paleolithic originated in Africa, and then extended to the middle and low latitudes of Europe, Asia and Africa (except America). This is the second time that mankind has left Africa. Dali people, Maba people, Dingcun people, Xu Jiayao people and Neanderthals all belong to early Homo sapiens. After Homo erectus left Africa, Heidelberg people evolved in Europe about 600,000 years ago, and Neanderthals evolved from Heidelberg people about 300,000 years ago, mainly distributed in Europe and the Middle East. As far as Europe and the Near East are concerned, Neanderthals almost certainly emerged from the group of Homo erectus in the West, but the situation of Homo erectus in East Asia, South Asia and Africa is not very clear. Neanderthals flourished from about 250 thousand years ago to 30 thousand years ago. Neanderthals made more advanced tools, called the most culture. Neanderthals who independently evolved into early Homo sapiens later met the early Homo sapiens who walked out of Africa for the second time and the late Homo sapiens who walked out of Africa for the third time, and they lived together for a period of time. With the arrival of late Homo sapiens who left Africa for the third time, early Homo sapiens (including early Homo sapiens who left Africa for the second time and Neanderthals who independently evolved into early Homo sapiens) failed in the competition for survival. What caused the disappearance of Neanderthals (climatic factors, cultural dominance and being slaughtered by Homo sapiens) is still controversial. Through the study of mitochondrial DNA, it is found that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens were separated in 465000 BC. Then about 60 thousand years ago, with the arrival of the ice age, the living environment became more and more difficult. Finally, about 30 thousand years ago, all early Homo sapiens were eliminated and extinct. Late Homo sapiens is about 1000 to 50000 years old, that is, the ancestors of modern people (cavemen, Hetao people, Liujiang people, Qilinshan people and Zhiyu people are all late Homo sapiens). About 654.38 billion years ago, a large group of Homo sapiens occupied the distribution of Neanderthals. It is generally believed that this group of Homo sapiens came from sub-Saharan Africa, which was about 6.5438+0.5 million years ago to 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens apparently originated from Homo erectus in Africa. Homo sapiens who invaded western Europe were called Kroma farmers. Their culture is very developed, leaving famous paintings in Lascox Cave and Shawei Cave. After Homo sapiens (farmers in Kroma) appeared, their tools were obviously more advanced, which was called Orgna culture. African Homo erectus and Asian Homo erectus were separated by about 6.5438+0.5 million years. It was during this period that African Homo erectus acquired the characteristics of Homo sapiens. They arrived in Australia 50,000 to 60,000 years ago, Asia 30,000 years ago and America 65,438+200,000 years ago (according to records), but there is evidence that people settled in America as early as 50,000 years ago. This is the third time that mankind has walked out of Africa. At this time, art appeared, and it was possible to make a fire artificially. The matriarchal clan commune, in the late Paleolithic period, was also the period when the four major races in the world (yellow, white, black and brown) were formed, during which mammoths and saber-toothed tigers became extinct.
[Edit this paragraph] The future of mankind
People have different views on the future of mankind. Ernst Meyer believes that, first, it is impossible for human beings to differentiate into several species. Because human beings occupy all the ecological stoves that can be thought of. And there is no geographical segregation in the crowd. Today, there are too many contacts between all people to form any form of long-term effective isolation, which may lead to such incidents. He also believes that the existing human species cannot evolve into a "better" species and will not become superman. Because although there are genetic variations in human genotypes, they can be used as suitable selection materials, but the current conditions are different from those when Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens. Nowadays, human beings constitute a big society, and there is no indication that natural selection can screen out superior genotypes and produce more powerful species than human beings now. As the improvement of selection no longer works, there is no chance to evolve a superior human species. Many people, like Hawking, believe that human genetic engineering, that is, information transmission through external non-biological means, makes human beings superior to the world and doubles the population, so that we can increase the complexity of our internal records, that is, DNA, without waiting for the slow step of biological evolution. In the last thousand years, it is very likely that we will completely redesign DNA and create an improved race. There are also some scholars who study this problem, fearing that our species is doomed to decline in such a big society.
[Edit this paragraph] Disputes and Appendices
Controversy: 1) Why can't we find the bones or bone fossils of human beings in various historical periods during the evolution process? 2) In the process of human evolution, in order to resist the invasion of nature and cold, the fur on the human body should be plump, but why did it lose its hair to resist the cold? Why don't tropical animals shed their hair? In recent years, ferrous metal objects, such as nails and steel bars, have been found in coal and stones? In the development of natural science, if we can't produce enough strong evidence for the above problems, then the theory of human evolution will be controversial. The existing species of human beings is the only single and unchanging primitive species of human beings. Appendix: Appendix 1). 1987 based on the study of mitochondrial DNA, the famous "eve hypothesis" was put forward, that is, the mitochondria of all people on the earth today were handed down from the same woman in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and her descendants left Africa about 6,543,800+0,300 years ago and came to Eurasia. 1990, the study of mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) found that women's mitochondrial DNA is the same regardless of black people, red people, yellow people and white people, which proved that modern people came from an ancestor of Homo sapiens and were determined to be African women according to archaeological molecular biology. Then, according to the comprehensive calculation of female mitochondrial DNA, male Y chromosome gene and ape DNA, the more scientific and credible age of Homo sapiens ancestors is about 50,000 to 654.38+ 10,000 years ago. Breeding path: Africa-> Asia-> Europe-> Africa; America. Note: during fertilization, DNA only exists in mitochondria in cytoplasm. Because there are a lot of mitochondria in egg cells and very few in sperm, it can be considered that mitochondria in a single cell only come from the mother. Mitochondrial DNA can be used to study maternal inheritance. Annex 2). 1997, according to the research and analysis of mitochondrial DNA, it is confirmed that Neanderthals do not belong to the evolutionary process of modern human beings, that is, Neanderthals are another branch of human beings and have nothing to do with the ancestors of existing human beings. Neanderthals, a branch of human beings, were about 30 thousand years ago. It was eliminated by a new human species from Africa: Late Homo sapiens, and finally completely extinct. (Annex 3) Genetic research on Y chromosome proves that modern people in East Asia have the same African ancestry. About 50,000 years ago, the earliest Homo sapiens who left Africa entered the south of East Asia, and then gradually moved northward in the next few tens of thousands of years, and entered the East Asian continent, covering Chinese mainland, North China and Siberia. In other words, the ancestors of China people entered the south of China from Southeast Asia, and then crossed the Yangtze River into the north. Another group of African Homo sapiens gradually entered the east of the Pacific Islands from Southeast Asia. Then, about 8500 years ago, Yangshao culture and Hemudu culture in China sprouted. Matriarchal clan commune. Early Neolithic period. The legendary era of China and Huang San. About 5000 years ago, the patriarchal clan commune. Late Neolithic period. The legendary Five Emperors in China. The pyramids of Egypt appeared. About 4,000 years ago, the first dynasty appeared in China's history-summer note: Y chromosome is the sex chromosome in 23 pairs of human chromosomes, which is exclusive to men, so the mode of transmission can only be used to study paternal inheritance, as shown in Annex 4). In 2003, the comparative analysis of the genes of Siberian and American Indians by American and British scientists showed that 1). 90% of Central American Indians and 50% of North American Indians come from the same father. Breeding path: Siberia and Northeast Asia-> Continental Bridge Crossing Bering Strait->; At this time, in Alaska, among a group of Siberian people from Northeast Asia, the Y chromosome of a Siberian germ cell just changed, named "M242", which happened about 18000 years ago (at this time, it was the middle and late period of the latest ice age, and the sea level moved down, making the Bering Strait connecting Siberia and Alaska accessible). In other words, Siberia, the ancestor of American Indians, first entered America not earlier than 65438. 2) Shortly thereafter, hundreds or thousands of years later, another group of Northeast Asians also came to Alaska, and their descendants multiplied to form the other half of American Indians; But I don't know why I stopped in North America and didn't continue to migrate south. Annex 5). Central Asia is the region with the highest genetic diversity in Eurasia population. Among all the Eurasian human groups studied, Central Asia is the oldest human group in Eurasia, which has the highest genetic diversity, especially the Uzbek people. Central Asia is the ancestor of human groups in Siberia, America and some European regions. This area is the birthplace of two large-scale immigration waves. After the human population in Central Asia moved northward to Siberia, one moved eastward to America and the other moved westward to Europe. The current population in Europe basically consists of two periods: the late Paleolithic period (about 45,000 years ago) and the early Neolithic period (about 1000 years ago). Annex 6. As for the multi-regional evolution theory advocated by China, the so-called multi-regional evolution theory means that since Homo erectus spread from Africa to other continents in the world 2 million years ago, it has independently evolved into modern Africans, Asians, Oceania and Europeans, during which there was a little gene exchange between regions. For China, after East African Homo erectus entered China, China hominids continued to evolve, and at the same time, there was a small amount of hybridization with overseas races, that is, Beijingers (Homo erectus) → Beijing early Homo sapiens (basically independent evolution) → modern people (modern China people). In other words, Beijingers are Homo erectus from Africa. However, it was not eliminated and replaced by the early Homo sapiens who walked out of Africa for the second time and the late Homo sapiens who walked out of Africa for the third time, but lived and evolved independently and eventually evolved into modern China people. However, the current achievements of human archaeology and modern genetic research show the fact that early Homo sapiens in China has been extinct and completely replaced by new immigrants of late Homo sapiens. On the most important archaeological fossil evidence, East Asia (including China) has appeared for 400-65438+ ten thousand years. That is to say, early Homo sapiens in China had a recent ice age (about 75,000 years ago, a large-scale volcanic eruption occurred on Sumatra Island, which led the world to enter the ice age about 67,000 years ago), which made it difficult for most species in East Asia, including China, to survive due to bad weather. Therefore, the ancestors of modern China people were late Homo sapiens from Africa. They entered China from south to north through Southeast Asia in the middle and late Ice Age. The theory that China people are aborigines of human origin is groundless. In other words, the Neanderthals in Beijing were not locals at all, but immigrant foreigners from Africa. Annex 7). Special case: The analysis of mitochondrial DNA extracted from Australian human remains about 60,000 years ago shows that it has no genetic relationship with the ancient DNA of early modern humans found in other parts of the world and considered to have originated in Africa. This shows that the evolutionary route of early modern people in Australia did not come from Africa. Note: Homo sapiens is divided into four major races. China people, East Asians and American Indians belong to the yellow race, also known as Mongolian race; Europe, North Africa and South Asia are white (Europa); Africa is black; Australia is brown (Australian).
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